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The Hutchinson Illustrated Encyclopedia of British History
Pageii Text copyright Research Machines plc 2004. All rights reserved. Helicon Publishing is a division of Research Machines plc. Helicon Publishing Division Research Machines plc New Mill House 183 Milton Park Abingdon Oxon OX14 4SE [emailprotected] Web site: http://www.helicon.co.uk
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Table of contents A abdication crisis Abercromby, Ralph Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdeen (codename) Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen Abhorrer Abinger, James Scarlett abjuration, oath of abjuration of the realm abolitionism Abraham‐man Achurch, Janet Acton, John Emerich Edward Dalberg Adams, Truda Addington, Henry, 1st Viscount Sidmouth Addled Parliament Adelaide (Queen consort) Admiralty, Board of the Adrian IV Afghan Wars agrarian revolution agricultural revolution agriculture, 19th‐century British agriculture, medieval Airy, Anna Albany, Alexander Stewart, 3rd Duke of Albany, John Stewart, 4th Duke of Albany, Robert Stewart, 1st Duke of Albert, Prince Consort Albion Alcock, John William Alexander Alexander I (of Scotland) Alexander II (of Scotland) Alexander III (of Scotland) Alexander of Hillsborough, Albert Victor Alexander Alexander 'the Magnificent' Alexandra (Queen consort)
Pageiv Alfred the Great Aliens Act Allen, William Alliance, the allodium All the Talents, Ministry of Alnwick Castle Amery, Leo(pold Charles Maurice Stennett) Amherst, William Pitt Amiens, peace of ancient demesne Ancient Order of Hibernians Anderson shelter André, John angel (coin) Angell, (Ralph) Norman Angle Anglesey, Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey Anglo‐Irish Agreement Anglo–Irish relations Anglo‐Irish Treaty Anglo‐Irish War Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle Anne Anne of Bohemia Anne of Cleves Anne of Denmark Annesley, James Anning, Mary Anson, George Anti‐Corn Law League Antrim, Randal Macdonnell Anwykyll, John Apostles Aquinas, St Thomas Aram, Eugene Arbroath, Declaration of Arcadia conference Arch, Joseph Arctic convoys
Pagev Argyll Argyll, Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll Argyll, Archibald Campbell Argyll, Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl and 2nd Marquess of Argyll Argyll, John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll Argyll, George John Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll Argyll, John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll Arkwright, Richard Arlington, Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington Arminianism Armitage, Edward Armstrong, Henry Edward Arnold, Joseph Arran, James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran Arran, James Stewart, Earl of Arran Arras, Battle of (World War II) array, commission of Arthur Arthur, Duke of Brittany Arthur, Prince of Wales Articles, Lords of Arundel, Thomas Howard Ascham, Roger Ashanti Wars Ashby, Margery Irene Ashingdon, Battle of Ashley, Jack Ashmole, Elias Ashmolean Museum Aske, Robert Askew, Anne Askey, Arthur Aspinall, John Audley Frederick Asquith, Herbert Henry Association, the Astley, Jacob Astley, Philip Astor Astor, Nancy Astor, Waldorf, 2nd Viscount Astor of Cliveden
Pagevi atheling Athelney, Isle of Athelstan Athlone, Alexander (Augustus Frederick William Alfred George) Atkins, Anna Atlantic triangle Atrebates ATS attainder, bill of Atterbury, Francis Attlee, Clement (Richard) Attwood, Thomas (politician) Auckland, George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland Audley, Thomas Aughrim, Battle of Augmentation, Court of Auld Alliance Aungerville, Richard auxiliary territorial service Avebury Avebury, John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury Awdry, W(ilbert) V(ere) axe factories Aylmer, Felix Edward Aymer de Valence (bishop) Aymer de Valence (nobleman) Ayres, John Ayscough, William Ayscue, George
B Babington, Anthony Back, George Back to Basics Backwell, Edward Bacon, Francis (politician) Bacon, Nicholas Baddeley, Sophia Baedeker raids Bagehot, Walter Bagimond's Roll
Pagevii Bagot, Charles Baillie, Robert Baillie, Robert, of Jerviswood Baird, David Baker, Henry Bakewell, Robert Baldwin, Stanley Balfour, James, of Pittendreich Balfour Declaration Baliol, John de Ball, Albert Ball, Alexander John ballot act Balmerino, James Elphinstone, 1st Baron Balnaves, Henry, of Halhill Bannockburn, Battle of barbarian conspiracy Barebones Parliament Barham, Charles Middleton, 1st Baron Barnes, (Alice) Josephine (Mary Taylor) Barnes, George Nicoll Barnet, Battle of baronage Barons' War (1264–67) Barons' Wars Barrington, Jonah Bart, Lionel Barton, Elizabeth bastide Battenberg, (Mountbatten) Prince Louis Alexander Beachy Head, Battle of Beaconsfield (title) beadle Beale, Mary Beaton, David Beaufort, Henry Beaufort, Margaret Beaumaris Beaumont, Agnes Beaverbrook, (William) Max(well) Aitken
Pageviii Becket, St Thomas à Bede bedel Bee, St Bek, Antony Bekynton, Thomas Belknap, Robert Bell, Alexander Graham Bell, Andrew Beloff, Max, Baron Beloff Benbow, John benefit of clergy Bennett, Jill Bentinck, Lord (William) George (Frederick Cavendish) Bentinck, Lord William Henry Cavendish Beresford, Charles William de la Poer Berkeley, William Bermingham Berry, Edward Berwick, James Fitzjames, 1st Duke of Berwick Berwick, treaties of Bessemer, Henry Bevan, Aneurin (Nye) Beveridge, William Henry Beveridge Report, the Bevin, Ernest Bianconi, Charles (Carlo) Biggs, Ronald Billington‐Greig, Teresa Bill of Rights (English) Birkbeck, George Birkenhead, F(rederick) E(dwin) Smith Birkett, (William) Norman Bishops' Wars Black, Clementina Maria Black and Tans Blackburn, Helen Black Prince Blackwood, Henry Blair, Tony
Pageix Blake, George (spy) Blake, Robert blanketeers Blenheim, Battle of Bligh, William Blitz, the Blood, Thomas Bloody Assizes Bloody Sunday Blount, Charles blue books Blunt, Anthony Frederick Boadicea Bodichon, Barbara Bodley, Thomas Boleyn, Anne Bolingbroke Bolingbroke, Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke Bonar Law Bondfield, Margaret Grace Bonham‐Carter, (Helen) Violet Boniface of Savoy Bonnie Prince Charlie Booth, Catherine Booth, Charles Booth, William Boothby, Robert John Graham Borlase, William Boscawen, Edward Bosworth, Battle of Bothwell, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell Boucicault, Nina Boudicca Bounty, Mutiny on the Bourchier, Thomas Bow Street Runners Boycott, Charles Cunningham Boyle, Richard Boyle, Roger Boyne, Battle of the
Pagex Braddock, Elizabeth Margaret (Bessie) Bradlaugh, Charles Bradshaw, John Brady, Ian Brant, Joseph Breakspear, Nicholas Brendan, St Brent‐Dyer, (Gladys) Elinor M(ay) Brett, Jeremy Bretwalda Brian Bóruma Bright, John Brighton Pavilion Brindley, James Britain Britain, ancient Britain, Battle of Britannia British East India Company British Empire British Empire (World War I) British Empire, Order of the British Museum broad church Broadway (codename) Brooke, James Brookeborough, Basil Stanlake Brooke Brougham, Henry Peter Brown, (James) Gordon Brown, George Alfred Brown, John (Scottish aide) Brown, William Browne, George, Count de Browne Bruce, Robert Bruce, Robert de Brummell, Beau (George Bryan) Bryce, James B‐Specials Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham Buckingham, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham
Pagexi Bull, Phil Bull, John (imaginary figure) Buller, Redvers Henry Burdett‐Coutts, Angela Georgina, Baroness Burdett‐Coutts Burgess, Guy Francis de Moncy Burgh, Hubert de Burghley, William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley Burke, Edmund Burke, John Bernard Burnham, Harry Lawson‐Webster Levy‐Lawson Burns, John Elliot Burton, Beryl Bute, John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute Butler, Eleanor Butler, Elizabeth Southerden Butler, Josephine Elizabeth Butler, Richard Austen Butler, William Francis Butler of Saffron Walden, Richard Austen Butler, Baron Butler of Saffron Walden Butlers of Ormond Butt, Isaac Buxton, Thomas Fowell Byng, George Byng, John Byron, Annabella
C Cabal, the Cade, Jack Cadwalader Cadwallon Caernarfon Caledonia Calvert, George, 1st Baron Baltimore Camden, William Camelot Cameron, John Campbell, Colin Campbell, John, 1st Baron Campbell Campbell‐Bannerman, Henry Campion, Edmund
Pagexii Canning, Charles John Canning, George Canning, Stratford Canterbury Canterbury Cathedral Canterbury Tales, The Canute Caractacus Caradon, Baron Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardwell, Edward, 1st Viscount Cardwell Carey, James Caroline of Brunswick Carpenter, Alfred Francis Carpenter, Mary Carrington, Dora (de Houghton) Carson, Edward Henry Carteret, John, 1st Earl Granville Carteret, Sir George Cartwright, Edmund Casement, Roger David Cassivelaunus Castanheda, Fernão Lopes de Castle, Barbara Anne Castlemaine, Countess of Castlereagh, Robert Stewart Cat and Mouse Act Catesby, Robert Catherine of Aragón Catherine of Braganza Catherine of Valois Catholic Emancipation Cato Street Conspiracy Cattle Acts Catuvellauni cavalier Cavell, Edith (Louisa) Cavendish, Lord Frederick Charles Cavendish, Spencer Cavendish, William
Pagexiii Cawley, William Cecil, Edgar Algernon Robert Cecil, Robert Cecil, William Central Treaty Organization ceorl Cerdic Chadwick, Edwin Chadwick, Helen Chain, Ernst Boris Chain Home chamberlain Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville Chamberlain, (Joseph) Austen Chamberlain, Joseph Chandos Chandos, Oliver Lyttelton, 1st Viscount Chandos Charge of the Light Brigade charity schools Charles Charles I (of Great Britain and Ireland) Charles II (of Great Britain and Ireland) Charles Edward Stuart Charles Fort Charrington, Frederick Nicholas charter charters, town Chartism Chaucer, Geoffrey Chaucer, Thomas Cheapside Chesterfield (family) Chetwode, Philip Walhouse, 1st Baron Chetwode Cheyne, John Cheyne, William Watson Chick, Harriette Chieftains, the Childers, (Robert) Erskine Childers, Erskine H(amilton) Childers, Hugh Culling Eardley
Pagexiv Chilianwala, Battle of Chimney Sweepers Act Christian Socialism Churchill, Lady Sarah, duchess of Marlborough Churchill, Lord Randolph Henry Spencer Churchill, Winston (Leonard Spencer) Cilian, St Cinque Ports Citrine, Walter McLennan Citrine, 1st Baron Civil War, English Civil War, Irish claim of right Clairemont, Claire Clan‐Na‐Gael Clann na Poblachta Clapham sect Clare, Richard de Clarendon, Edward Hyde Clarendon, George William Frederick Villiers Clarendon, Constitutions of Clark, Alan Kenneth McKenzie Clarkson, Thomas Claverhouse, John Graham Clayton‐Bulwer Treaty Cleland, William clerk of the peace Cleveland, Duchess of Clifford Clifford, Thomas, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh Clinton, Henry Clontarf, Battle of closure Clynes, John Robert Cnut Coalbrookdale coal mining (Industrial Revolution) Coalport Porcelain Cobb, Richard Charles Cobbett, William Cobden, Richard
Pagexv Cockayne project coffee house Coke, Edward Coke, Thomas William Cole, G(eorge) D(ouglas) H(oward) Cole, Henry Cole, Margaret Isabel Colenso, Battle of Colepeper, John, 1st Baron Colepeper Collier, Jeremy Collingwood, Cuthbert Collins, Michael Colman, St colonia Colquhoun, Ithell Combination Acts Comgall, St common pleas, court of commonwealth Commonwealth Immigration Acts Commonwealth, the (British) Communist Party of Great Britain composition (Ireland) Compton, Spencer comptroller Comyn Conchobar Confederation of Kilkenny Congregation, Lords of the Coningham, Arthur Conisbrough Connaught and Strathearn, Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Connell, James Connolly, James consensus politics Conservative Party constable, parish Conventicle Act Cook, Arthur James Cook, James
Pagexvi Cook, Robin (Robert Finlayson) Cooper, (Alfred) Duff, 1st Viscount Norwich Cope, John Copenhagen, Battle of Cormac MacArt Cormac MacCulinan cornet (rank) Corn Laws Cornwallis, Charles, 1st Marquis and 2nd Earl Cornwallis, William Corporation Act corresponding society Corrigan, Mairead Cort, Henry Cosgrave, William Thomas coshery Costello, John Aloysius Cotton, Robert Bruce Coulton, George Gordon Council in the Marches Council of Estates Council of the North Country Party Countryside March Coupon Election Courcy, John de Courtenay Courtney, Kathleen D'Olier Cousins, Frank Covenanter Coventry, John coyne and livery Crab, Roger Cradock, Christopher Craig, James Cranmer, Thomas Crawford and Balcarres, Earl of Crawfurd, Thomas Creasy, Edward Shepherd Creevey, Thomas
Pagexvii Creighton, Mandell Cremer, William Randal Crichton, James Crick, Francis Harry Compton Cripps, (Richard) Stafford Crockford, William croft Croke, Thomas William Croker, John Wilson Crommelin, Samuel Louis Crompton, Samuel Crompton's mule Cromwell, Henry Cromwell, Oliver Cromwell, Richard Cromwell, Thomas Cromwell's Irish campaign Crosland, (Charles) Anthony (Raven) Cross, Richard Assheton Cross, 1st Viscount Cross Crossman, Richard Howard Stafford Crowley, Aleister (Edward Alexander) Culloden, Battle of Cumberland, William Augustus Cumming Cumyn Cunedda, Wledig Cunningham, Alan Gordon Cunningham, John (air pilot) Cunninghame‐Graham, Robert Bontine Cunobelin curia regis Curragh 'Mutiny' Curzon, George Nathaniel Cutty Sark Cymbeline
D Dál Cais Dalhousie, James Andrew Broun Ramsay Dalriada (Ireland) Dalriada (Scotland)
Pagexviii Dalrymple, David, Lord Hailes Dalton, (Edward) Hugh (John Neale) Dalyell, Thomas Dalzell dame school Damnii Damnonii Danby, Thomas Osborne danegeld Danelaw Dangerfield, Thomas Darby, Abraham Darcy, Patrick Dardanelles Commission Darling, Grace Horsley Darnley, Henry Stewart or Stuart, Lord Darnley Dartmouth, George Legge, Baron Dartmouth Dashwood, Francis, 15th Baron Le Despencer David David I David II Davies, Christian Davies, Sarah Emily Davison, William Davitt, Michael Davy, Humphry Deakin, Arthur Deane, Richard dean of guild Declaration of Indulgence Declaration of Rights Declaratory Act De Facto Act Defence of the Realm Act Defender of the Faith Defenders Deheubarth Deira Dell, Edmund Dempsey, Miles Christopher
Pagexix Denman, Gertrude Mary Derby, Edward (George Geoffrey Smith) Stanley Derby, Edward George Villiers Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby De Robeck, John Michael Derwentwater, James Radcliffe, 3rd Earl of Derwentwater Desbarres, Joseph Frederick Walsh Desborough, John Desmond, Earl of Desmond Desmond revolt Despard, Edward Marcus Despard, Mrs Charlotte Despard Plot Despencer, Baron Le Despenser, Hugh Le, Earl of Winchester de Valera, Éamon Devlin, Anne Devonshire, William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire Devonshire, 8th Duke of Devoy, John Dewar, Donald Campbell D'Ewes, Simonds Diamond Jubilee Diane de Poitiers Diarmid die‐hard Digby, Everard Digby, Kenelm Digger Dilke, Charles Wentworth Dill, John Greer Dillon, James (politician) Dillon, John Diplock court disestablishment Disinherited, the Disraeli, Benjamin dissenting academies Dissolution of the Monasteries distraint of knighthood
Pagexx Dod, Lottie (Charlotte) Dodington, George Domesday Book Domett, William domus conversorum Donald III, Bane ('fair') Donovan, Terence Daniel Doomsday Book Dors, Diana Douglas (family) Douglas‐Home, Alec Dover, Thomas Dover Patrol Downing, George Drake, Francis Dreadnought Drew, Jane Beverley Drogheda, Battle of drove roads duckboard Dudley, Lord Guildford Dumnonii Dunbar Dunbar, Earl of Dunbar, Battles of Duncan I Duncan II Duncan‐Sandys, Duncan (Edwin) Dundas, David Dundas, Henry Dundee, John Graham Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee Dunfermline, Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline Dunmore, John Murray, Earl of Dunton, John Durham, John George Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham Durham Cathedral Durrow, Book of Duval, Claude Dyfrig, St Dymoke
Pagexxi Dympna
E Eadmer of Canterbury ealdorman Eardley, Joan Eastern Association Easter Rising East India Company, British Eastland Company Ede, James Chuter Eden, (Robert) Anthony Edgar Edgar the Peaceful Edgehill, Battle of Edington, Battle of Edmund I Edmund (II) Ironside Edmund of Abingdon, St Edmund, St Edred Edric the Forester education acts Edward Edward Edward I Edward II Edward III Edward IV Edward V Edward VI Edward VII Edward VIII Edwards, Jimmy Edwards, Robert Walter Dudley Edward the Confessor Edward the Elder Edward the Martyr Edwin Edwy Egbert
Pagexxii Eldon, John Scott, 1st Earl of Eldon Eleanor of Provence Eleven Years' Tyranny Eliot, John Elizabeth Elizabeth I Elizabethan religious settlement Elizabeth of York Ella Elphinstone, Mountstuart Elton, Geoffrey Rudolph Ely Cathedral Elyot, Thomas emancipation of women Emmet, Robert Employers and Workmen Act Employer's Liability Act Empson, Richard enclosure Engagement England and France, medieval England and Ireland, medieval England and Scotland, medieval England and Wales, medieval England: history to 1485 England: history 1485–1714 English architecture, medieval English art, medieval English literature, medieval Englishry Ennals, David Hedley environmentalism Eric Bloodaxe Ermine Street Erskine, Thomas Esher, William Baliol Brett, Viscount Essex, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex Essex, Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex Essex, Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex Esteve‐Coll, Elizabeth Anne Loosemore
Pagexxiii Ethelbert Ethelfleda Ethelred (II) the Unready Ethelred I Ethelwulf Evans, Edward Ratcliffe Exclusion Bills Exeter Cathedral eyre
F Fabian Society factory act Fairfax, Thomas fairs Faithfull, Emily Falaise, treaty of Falkender, Marcia Matilda Falkirk, Battle of Falkland, Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falklands War Faulkner, (Arthur) Brian (Deane) Fawcett, Millicent Fawkes, Guy Felton, John Fenian movement Fenwick, John Ferard, Elizabeth Catherine Ferguson, Robert Ferrers, Lawrence Shirley, 4th Earl Festival of Britain Fidei Defensor Field, Winston Joseph Fiennes, Celia Fifteen, the Fifth Monarchy Men Fillan, St Finian, St Fire of London first fruits and tenths Firth, Charles Harding
Pagexxiv Fishbourne Palace Fisher, (Norman Fenwick) Warren Fisher, Herbert Albert Laurens Fisher, John Arbuthnot Fitch, Ralph Fitton, Mary Fitzgerald Fitzgerald Fitzgerald, Edward Fitzgerald, Gerald Fitzgerald, Thomas Fitzgibbon, John Fitzherbert, Maria Anne Fitzstephen, William Fitzurse, Reginald Fitzwilliam, Richard Fitzwilliam, William Wentworth, Viscount Fitzwilliam five articles of Perth Five Boroughs five members Five Mile Act Flambard, Ranulf Fleet prison Fleetwood, Charles Fleming, Alexander Fletcher, Andrew of Saltoun Flodden, Battle of Flood, Henry foederati folly food‐rent Foot, Dingle Mackintosh Foot, Hugh Mackintosh Foot, Isaac Foot, Michael Mackintosh footpad forced loans Fordun, John of forest laws forfeiture
Pagexxv Forster, William Edward Fortescue, John Fortescue‐Brickdale, (Mary) Eleanor Forty‐Five, the Foss Way Fothergill, John Fourdrinier Fourth Party Fowler, Gerald (Gerry) Fowler, John Fox, Charles James Foxe, Richard Framlingham franchise (politics) Francis, Clare Mary Francis, Philip Franklin, Jane Franklin, Rosalind Elsie frankpledge Fraser, Bruce Austin, 1st Baron Fraser of North Cape Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales free companies freemasonry French, John Denton Pinkstone Frere, Henry Bartle Edward Frere, John Hookham (author) Frideswide, St Frith, Mary frost fairs Froude, James Anthony Fry, Elizabeth Fyfe, David Maxwell
G Gabain, Ethel Leontine Gaelic League Gage, Thomas Gaitskell, Hugh (Todd Naylor) Gale, Humphrey Middleton Gale, Richard Nelson game laws
Pagexxvi Gang of Four (UK) Garda Síochána Gardiner, Stephen Garrod, Dorothy Annie Elizabeth Gascoigne, William gas lighting Gauden, John gavelkind Gaveston, Piers Geddes, Jenny General Belgrano general strike general warrants George George I (of Great Britain and Ireland) George II (of Great Britain and Ireland) George III George IV George V George VI Geraldine Gerald of Wales Germanus of Auxerre, St gibbeting Gibbon, Edward Gibraltar, siege of Gibson, Guy Penrose Gilbert's Act Gillies, Sir Harold Delf Giraldus Cambrensis Gladstone, William Ewart Glanvill, Ranulf de Glastonbury glebe Glencoe, Massacre of Glendower, Owen Glorious Revolution Gloucester Cathedral Goderich, 1st Viscount Goderich Godiva, or Godgifu, Lady
Pagexxvii Godolphin, Sidney Godwin Golden Jubilee gold penny goldsmith Gonne, Maud Gooch, George Peabody Good Friday Agreement Goodman, Arnold Abraham, Baron Goodman Good Parliament Gordon, Charles George Gordon, Lord George Gordon, Noele Goring, George Goring, Lord Gorst, J(ohn) E(ldon) Goschen, George Joachim Gosse, (Laura) Sylvia Gothic Architecture: England Gow, Ian Reginald Edward Grafton, Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3rd Duke of Grafton Graham, Robert Granby, John Manners, Marquess of Granby Grand National Consolidated Trades Union Grand Remonstrance Granville, George Leveson‐Gower Grattan, Henry Great Britain Great Contract Greater London Council Great Exhibition Great Rebellion great seal Green Cross Society Greenwich, Treaty of Greenwood, Arthur Grenfell, Joyce Grenville, George Grenville, Richard Grenville, William Wyndham Gretna Green
Pagexxviii Grey, Charles Grey, Edward Grey, George Grey, Henry George Grey, Lady Jane Grierson, Robert Griffith, Arthur Griffiths, James Grimond, Jo(seph), Baron Grimond Grindal, Edmund groat groundnuts scheme Gruffydd ap Cynan Gruffydd ap Llewellyn guardian guillotine (politics) Guinness, Benjamin Lee Guinness, Edward Cecil Gunpowder Plot Guthrum Gwynedd, kingdom of
H Haddingtonshire Hague, William Jefferson Haig, Douglas Hailes Hailsham, Douglas McGarel Hogg, 1st Viscount and Baron Hailsham, Quintin McGarel Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone Haldane, Richard Burdon halfpenny Halidon Hill, Battle of Halifax, Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax (2nd creation) Halifax, George Montagu Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax Hall, (William) Reginald Hallam, Henry Halsbury, Hardinge Stanley Giffard, 1st Earl of Hamilton, Emma, Lady Hamilton, James Hamilton, Thomas
Pagexxix Hamilton, William (diplomat) Hammond, Robert Hamond, Andrew Snape Hampden, John Hampton Court Palace hand‐loom weavers Hanratty, James Harcourt, William George Granville Venables Vernon Hardie, (James) Keir Harding, John (Allan Francis) Hardinge of Lahore, Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardy, Charles Hardy, Thomas Masterman Harfleur, siege of Hargreaves, Alison Hargreaves, James Harington, Charles Harley, Robert Harold Harold I Harold (II) Godwinson Harrington, James Harrison, Thomas harrying of the north Hart, Judith Constance Mary Hart, Robert Hartington, Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington and 8th Duke of Devonshire Hartlepools, bombardment of Harvey, William Hassal, Joan Hastings, Francis Rawdon, 1st Marquess of Hastings Hastings, Battle of Hatton, Sir Christopher Havelock, Henry Havers, Robert Michael Oldfield, Baron Havers Hawke of Lowton, Edward, Baron Hawke of Lowton Hawkes, Jacquetta Hawkins, John Hawkins, Richard Heads of Proposals
Pagexxx Healy, Timothy Michael hearth tax Heath, Edward (Richard George) Heathfield, George Augustus Eliott, Baron Heathfield Heffer, Eric Samuel Heligoland Bight, Battle of Hell‐Fire Club Henderson, Arthur Henderson, Neville Meyrick Henderson, William Hannam Hengist Henrietta Henrietta Maria Henry, Edward Henry Henry I (of England) Henry II Henry III (of England) Henry IV (of England) Henry V (of England) Henry VI (of England) Henry VII (of England) Henry VIII Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales Henry, the Young King heptarchy Herbert, A(lan) P(atrick) Herbert, Sidney Hereward the Wake Herries, John Maxwell Herzog, Chaim Heseltine, Michael (Ray Dibdin) Hewart of Bury, John Gordon Hewart, 1st Baron Hewart of Bury hide Higden, Ranulf High Commission high constable Highland Clearances Highland Host highwayman
Pagexxxi Hill, (John Edward) Christopher Hill, Austin Bradford Hill, Rowland, 1st Viscount Hill hill figure Hillsborough Agreement Hindley, Myra Hobbes, Thomas Hobhouse, John Cam, Baron Broughton Hoby, Sir Thomas Hogg, Quintin Holinshed, Raphael Holland, Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland Holland, Henry Richard Vassall Fox, 3rd Baron Holland Holles of Ifield, Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles of Ifield Hollis, Roger Henry Holloway, Stanley Holyoake, George Jacob homage Home, Alec Douglas‐ home front home front, World War I (UK) home front, World War II Home Guard home rule, Irish Homildon Hill, Battle of Hood, Samuel Hore‐Belisha, (Isaac) Leslie Hornby v. Close Horne, Henry Sinclair Horsa Horton, Max Kennedy Hoste, William houscarl houses of correction Howard, Catherine Howard, Constance Howe, (Richard Edward) Geoffrey How‐Martyn, Edith Hudson, George (politician) hue and cry
Pagexxxii Hull, Richard Amyatt Humble Petition and Advice Hume, Allan Octavian Hume, Joseph hunger march Hunne's case Hunt, Henry ('Orator') Hurd, Douglas (Richard) husbandmen Huskisson, William Hyde, Douglas Hyndman, Henry Mayers Hywel Dda
I Iceni Icknield Way Imperial War Cabinet impressment impropriation Indemnity and Oblivion, Act of indentured retainers Independent Labour Party Independents Indirect Rule Industrial Revolution Information, Ministry of INLA Instrument of Government, the interregnum Invergordon Mutiny Invincibles, the IRA Ireland: history to 1154 Ireland: history 1154 to 1485 Ireland: history 1485 to 1603 Ireland: history 1603 to 1782 Ireland: history 1782 to 1921 Ireton, Henry Irish Free State Irish Land Acts
Pagexxxiii Irish nationalism Irish National Liberation Army Irish Republican Army Irish Republican Brotherhood Irish republicanism Irish Volunteers iron and steel industry Ironside, (William) Edmund, 1st Baron Ironside Ironsides Isaacs, Rufus Daniel Isaacs, Susan Brierley Isabella of Angoulême Isandhlwana, Battle of Isles, Lord of the
J Jack the Ripper Jacob, Claud William Jacobite James James I (of England) James II (of England) James James I (of Scotland) James II (of Scotland) James III James IV James V James VI James VII James Francis Edward Stuart Jamestown Jarrow Crusade Jay, Douglas Patrick Thomas Jellalabad, Battle of Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jenkins, (David) Clive Jenkins, Robert Jenkins, Roy Harris Jenkinson, Anthony Jenkinson, Charles Hilary
Pagexxxiv Jenkins's Ear, War of Jenner, Edward Jervis, John Jew (medieval England) Jex‐Blake, Sophia Louisa Joan of Kent John (I) Lackland John Bull John of Gaunt John of Lancaster Johnson, Amy jointure Jones, Ernest Charles Jones, Thomas Joseph, Keith Sinjohn Junto
K Kay, John Keating, Tom (Thomas Patrick) Keeler, Christine Keeper of the Great Seal Keith, George Keith Elphinstone, Viscount Keith Keith, James Francis Edward Kells, Book of Kelly, David Christopher Kempenfelt, Richard Ken, Thomas Kendal, Ehrengard Melusina von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal Kenilworth, siege of Kennedy, James Kenneth Kenneth I Kenneth II Kenney, Annie Kent, Bruce Kent, Edward Augustus Kent, George Edward Alexander Edmund Kent, kingdom of Keppel, Augustus, Viscount Keppel Ketch, Jack
Pagexxxv Kett, Robert Kett's Rebellion Keyes, Roger John Brownlow Keys, House of khaki election Kickham, Charles Joseph Kidd, 'Captain' William Kildare Killiecrankie, Battle of Kilmainham Treaty Kilmuir, David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe Kimberley, John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley King, Richard 'King and Country' debate Kinglake, Alexander William King's Council King's Friends King's Peace Kinneir, John Macdonald Kinnock, Neil Gordon Kinross‐shire Kirkcaldy of Grange, William Kirkpatrick, Ivone (Augustine) Kitchener, Horatio (Herbert) Kitchener armies knight's fee Knollys, Francis Knox, John Kray, Ronald (1933–1995) and Reginald (1933–2000) Kyrle, John Kyteler, Alice
L Labouchere, Henry Dupré Labourers, Statute of Labour Party Labour Representation Committee Lacey, Janet Ladies' Land League Lamb, Caroline Lambert, John
Pagexxxvi Lamont, Norman Stewart Hughson Lancaster House Agreement Land League land tax Lane, Allen Lane, Elizabeth Lanfranc Lang, Cosmo Gordon Langland, William Langton, Stephen Lansbury, George Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Petty‐Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne Lansdowne, Henry Petty‐Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquis of Lansdowne Lansdowne, William Petty Fitzmaurice, 1st Marquis of Lansdowne Larkin, James Laski, Harold Joseph Latimer, Hugh Laud, William Lauderdale, John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale Law, Andrew Bonar Law, John Lawes, John Bennet Lawrence, John Laird Mair, 1st Baron Lawrence of the Punjab and of Grately Lawrence, T(homas) E(dward) Layamon Lee, Arthur Hamilton, 1st Viscount Lee of Fareham Lee, Jennie (Janet) Lee, Sophia Leeds, Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds Leese, Oliver William Hargreaves leet Lehmann, Beatrix Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester Leigh‐Mallory, George Leighton, Margaret Leland, John Lemass, Seán Francis Lentaigne, Walter Lenthall, William Leofric
Pagexxxvii Leslie, David, Lord Newark Levant Company Levellers Leven, Alexander Leslie Leveson‐Gower, Granville George Lhuyd, Edward Libau Liberal Party Liberator, the liberties licensing laws Light Brigade, Charge of the Lilburne, John Limerick, Treaty of Lincoln, Battles of Lindsey Lindsey, Robert Bertie, lst Earl of Lindsey, Parts of Lingard, John linkman Lisle, Alicia Lisle, John Lister, Joseph Liston, Robert Little Moreton Hall Liverpool, Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl Liverpool livery and maintenance Livingstone, David Llewelyn Llewelyn I Llewelyn II ap Gruffydd Lloyd, (John) Selwyn (Brooke) Lloyd, John (sailor) Lloyd, Selwyn Lloyd George, David, 1st Earl Lloyd‐George of Dwyfor Lloyd George, Lady Megan Lloyd of Dolobran, George Ambrose Lloyd, 1st Baron Loftus, Adam Lollard
Pagexxxviii Lombard, Peter London Bridge London County Council Londonderry, Charles Stewart Henry Vane‐Tempest‐Stewart Londonderry, Siege of London: history London, Museum of London Working Men's Association longbow Longchamps, William de Longford, Frank (Francis Aungier) Pakenham Long Parliament Long Range Desert Group Lord Privy Seal Lords of the Articles Lords of the Congregation Louis, Prince of Battenberg Lovat, Simon Fraser Lovett, William Lowe, Hudson loyalism Loyalist Lucan, George Charles Bingham, 3rd earl of Luddite Ludford Bridge, Rout of Ludlow, Edmund Lugard, Frederick John Dealtry Lutine Luttrell Psalter Lynch, Jack (John Mary) Lynedoch, Thomas Graham, 1st Baron Lyttelton, Alfred Lytton, (Edward) Robert Bulwer Lytton, Victor Alexander George Robert Bulwer Lytton, 2nd Earl
M McAdam, John Loudon Macartney, George Macartney, 1st Earl Macbeth MacBride, Seán McCudden, James Thomas Byford
Pagexxxix MacDiarmada, Seán MacDonald, (James) Ramsay Macdonald, Flora Macdonald, Hector Archibald Macdonald, Malcolm John McGill, Donald Machine Gun Corps Mackay, Hugh McKenna, Reginald Macleod, Iain Norman Macmillan, (Maurice) Harold MacMurrough, Dermot MacNeill, John (Eoin) MacNeill, John Gordon Swift MacQuaid, John Charles MacSwiney, Mary MacSwiney, Terence Madden, Charles Edward Mafeking, Siege of Magdala, Battle of Magersfontein, Battle of Magna Carta Magrath, Meiler Main Plot mainprise Maitland, William Major, John major‐general Majuba, Battle of Malachy, St Malcolm, John Malcolm Malcolm I Malcolm (II) Mackenneth Malcolm III Malcolm IV the Maiden Malmesbury Malory, Thomas malt tax Manchester, Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of
Pagexl Mandeville, John Mann, Tom Manning, (Elizabeth) Leah Mansfield judgment Mantes‐la‐Jolie manumission Mappa Mundi Mar, John Erskine, 11th Earl of Marcher Lords Marconi Scandal Margaret Margaret of Anjou Margaret, St Markievicz, Constance Georgina, Countess Markievicz Marlborough, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough Marprelate controversy Married Women's Property Acts Marshall, William Raine Marshall rebellion Marshalsea Marston Moor, Battle of Martello tower Martin, Mary Mary Queen of Scots Mary, Queen Mary Mary I Mary II Mary of Guise Mary of Modena Mary Rose Masham, Abigail Matilda, the Empress Maud Matthews, Jessie Maude, (Frederick) Stanley Maudling, Reginald Maurice, Frederick Barton Maxton, James Maxwell, Robert, Lord Mayhew, Henry
Pagexli Maynooth Grant Mayo, Richard Southwell Bourke McCarthy, Justin McClure, Robert John le Mesurier McCreery, Richard Loudon Meagher, Thomas Francis Meal Tub Plot Medenine medieval medicine, English Melbourne, (Henry) William Lamb Melchett, Alfred Moritz Mond Mellifont, conspiracy of Melville, Andrew Melville, James (Scottish historical writer) Melville, James (Scottish reformer) Merchants Adventurers merchet Mercia Merciless Parliament Mesopotamian Campaign Metcalf, John Methodism metropolitan county Middle English Midleton, William St John Fremantle Brodrick Mildenhall treasure Mildmay, Walter Milford Haven, Marquess of millenary petition Miller, Max Milne, George Francis, 1st Baron Milne Milner, Alfred, 1st Viscount Milner Milner, Frederick George Milner Minden, Battle of miners' strike Mines Act Minster in Sheppey Minto, Gilbert Elliot missionary societies Mitchel, John
Pagexlii M'Naughten, Daniel 'moaning minnie' Model Parliament Mollison, James Allan Molyneux, William monastic life, medieval Monck, George Monitor Monmouth, James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth Mons Badonicus Mons Graupius, Battle of Montagu, Edwin Samuel Montfort, Simon de Montgomery, Treaty of Montrose, James Graham, 1st Marquess and 5th Earl of Montrose Moray (regent) Morcar More, (St) Thomas Morgan, Frederick Edgworth Morgan, Henry Morley, John Morrison, Herbert Stanley Morte D'Arthur, Le Mortimer Mortimer, Roger de Mortimer's Cross, Battle of Morton, James Douglas, 4th earl of Morton, John Moryson, Fynes Mosley, Oswald (Ernald) motte Mountbatten, Edwina Cynthia Annette Mountbatten, Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountjoy Castle Muir, John Ramsay Brice Municipal Corporations Act municipia Munro, Thomas Munster plantation murage
Pagexliii Murray, Archibald James Murray, James Stuart Murray, Philip Muscovy Company Mutiny Act Myton, Battle of
N nabob Naoroji, Dadabhai Napier, Charles Napier, Charles James Napier, Robert Cornelis Napier, William Francis Patrick Naseby, Battle of Nasmyth, James Nassau agreement National Health Service National Insurance Act National Liberal Foundation national schools Naunton, Robert Navigation Acts Nayler, James Neave, Airey Middleton Sheffield Néry, Battle of neutrality (Irish) Neville, Richard Neville‐Jones, (Lilian) Pauline New Armies Newbury, Battles of Newcastle, Thomas Pelham‐Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle Newcastle, William Cavendish Newcastle Propositions Newcomen, Thomas Newgate New Ireland Forum New Model Army New Orleans, Battle of Newport Riots Nicholson, (Rose) Winifred
Pagexliv Nightingale, Florence Nilsen, Dennis Nineteen Propositions Ninian, St Nithsdale, William Maxwell, 5th Earl of Nithsdale Nive, Battle of noble Noel‐Baker, Philip John, Baron Noel‐Baker Nonjuror Nore mutiny Norfolk, Hugh Bigod Norfolk, Roger Bigod Norfolk, Roger Bigod Norfolk, Thomas Howard Norfolk, Thomas Howard, 4th duke of Norman Conquest Norris, John (English soldier) North, Frederick Northampton, Spencer Joshua Alwyne Compton Northampton, William Parr Northampton, Battle of North Briton Northcote, Stafford Henry Northern Ireland Northern Ireland peace process Northern rebellion Northumberland, John Dudley, Duke of Northumbria Norwich, (Alfred) Duff Cooper Nott William Frederick, John Nugent, Richard
O Oakeshott, Michael Joseph Oastler, Richard Oates, Titus O'Brien O'Brien, James Bronterre O'Brien, William O'Brien, William Smith O'Byrne, Fiach MacHugh
Pagexlv O'Connell, Daniel O'Connor, Feargus Edward O'Connor, Richard Nugent O'Connor, Rory O'Connor, Thomas Power O'Connor of Connacht Ó Dálaigh, Cearbhall O'Donnell, Peadar O'Donnell of Tirconnell O'Duffy, Eoin Offa ogham O'Higgins, Ambrosio O'Higgins, Kevin Christopher O'Kelly, Sean Thomas old‐age pension Oldcastle, John (English Lollard) 'Old Contemptibles' Old Pretender Olivier of Ramsden, Sydney Haldane Olivier O'Mahony, John Omdurman, Battle of Ommanney, Erasmus O'Neill O'Neill, Hugh O'Neill, Owen Roe O'Neill, Shane O'Neill, Terence open‐field system Orange Order Ordinances, the Ordovices Orford, 1st Earl of Ormond Ormond, James Butler Ormond, James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond O'Rourke, Brian‐na‐Murtha Osborne Judgement Ossory Oswy
Pagexlvi Oswy Ottawa Conferences Otterburn, Battle of Outram, James Owen, Robert Oxford and Asquith, Earl of oyer and terminer
P Paardeburg, Battle of page Paisley, Bob Pakenham, William Christopher Pale, the English Palliser, Hugh Palmerston, Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston Pankhurst, Christabel Pankhurst, Emmeline Pankhurst, Sylvia Estelle Paris, Matthew Parisii Park, Mungo Parker, Hyde Parker, Hyde Parker, Matthew Parker, William Parkes, Harry Smith Parkinson, Cyril Northcote parliament Parliament Act 1911 parliamentary reform parliamentary reform acts Parliament, Houses of Parnell, Charles Stewart Parnell, Frances ('Fanny') (1849–1882) and Anna (1852–1911) Parr, Catherine partition (Ireland) Passfield, Baron Passfield Paston family Paston Letters patent rolls
Pagexlvii Paterson, Emma Pathfinder Force patronage Paulinus Peace Pledge Union Pearse, Patrick Henry Peart, (Thomas) Frederick Peel, John Peel, Robert peel towers Pelham, Henry Pembroke (town) Pembroke, William Herbert, 3rd Earl of Pembroke penal code Penn, William penny penny post Penruddock's Rising Pentrich Rising People's Budget People's Charter Perceval, Spencer Percival, Arthur Peter, Hugh Peterloo massacre Pethick‐Lawrence, Emmeline petitioners petition of right petty schools Philiphaugh Philippa of Hainault phoney war Picquigny, Treaty of Pict Picton, Thomas piepowder courts 'Pierce the Plowman's Crede' Piers Plowman pilgrimage, medieval Pilgrimage of Grace
Pagexlviii Pinkie, Battle of pipe rolls Pitt, William, the Elder Pitt, William, the Younger Place, Francis placemen Plantagenet Plantation of Ireland Plumer, Hubert Charles Onslow, 1st Viscount Plunkett, Oliver pocket borough Poitiers, Battle of Pollard, Albert Frederick Pollitt, Harry poor law Popish Plot Poplarism Portadown Bridge massacre Portal, Charles Frederick Algernon, 1st Viscount Portal of Hungerford Porteous riots Porter, Endymion Portland, William Bentinck, 1st Earl of Portland Portland, William Henry Cavendish Bentinck Postan, Eileen Edna Le Poer potato famine Pound, (Alfred) Dudley Pickman Rogers Pounds, John Powell, (John) Enoch Powicke, Frederick Maurice Powys, House of Poynings's Law praemunire Prescott, John Leslie press gang Preston, Battle of Prestonpans, Battle of pretender Pride, Thomas Pride's purge priest's hole
Pagexlix Primrose League Prince Consort Princes in the Tower Prior, James Michael Leathes, Baron Prior Prior, Matthew Pritt, Denis Nowell Proclamation of 1763 Procter, Dod Profumo, John Dennis propaganda, World War I Protectorate, the Protestantism (Ireland) Prout, Margaret Millicent Provisions of Oxford Provisions of Westminster Provisors, Statutes of Prynne, William public health acts Puritan Putney debates Pym, Francis Leslie, Baron Pym Pym, John
Q Q‐Boats Quartering Act Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service Queen Anne's Bounty Queen Mary's Psalter Quia Emptores quo warranto
R race‐relations acts Radical Raedwald ragged schools Rahere Raleigh, Walter Ramsay, Bertram Home Ranters Rapin, Paul de
Pagel Rathbone, Eleanor Florence rationing Rawlinson, Henry Seymour Rebecca Riots Rebellion of 1798 recusant Redmond, John Edward Reeve, Clara Reform Acts Reformation Parliament Regency regicide regicides Reith, John Charles Walsham, 1st Baron reivers remonstrant Repington, Charles à Court Representation of the People Acts Repton Requests, Court of Restoration retainer RFC (aviation) Rhondda, David Alfred Thomas, 1st Viscount Rhondda Rice‐Davies, Mandy (Marilyn) Richard Richard (I) the Lion‐Heart Richard II Richard III Richards, Audrey Richmond, Herbert Ridgeway, the Ridley, Nicholas (bishop) Ridley, Nicholas (politician) Ridolfi Plot Ripon, Frederick John Robinson Ripon, treaty of Rivers, Richard Savage, 4th Earl Rivers Rivers, Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers Rizzio, David
Pageli RNAS Robens, Alfred Robert Robert (I) the Bruce Robert II (of Scotland) Robert III Robert of Ketton Roberts, Bartholomew Robertson, William Robertson, William Robert (general) Robinson, William Leefe Rob Roy Robsart, Amy Rochdale Pioneers Rockingham, Charles Watson Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham Roebuck, John Arthur Roger of Salisbury Roman Britain Roman roads Romilly, Samuel Rooke, George Room 40 Root and Branch Petition Rorke's Drift, Battle of Rose, John Holland Rosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery Roses, Wars of the Rothesay, David Stewart, 1st Duke of Rothesay Rothschild, Nathaniel Mayer Victor, 3rd Baron rotten borough rough wooing Roundhead Roundsman system Round Table conferences Roundway Down, Battle of Rous, Francis Royal Flying Corps Royalist Royal Naval Air Service Royal Navy
Pagelii Royal Pavilion Royal Ulster Constabulary Rump, the Runciman, Steven Runciman, Walter, 1st Viscount Runciman Runnymede Rupert, Prince Russell, Jack (John) Russell, John Russell, William, Lord Russell of Killowen, Charles Russell, Lord Russell of Killowen Ryan, Desmond Ryan, Michael Robert Rye House Plot Rymer, Thomas
S Sacheverell, Henry Sacheverell Case Sackville, George St Albans, Battle of Saints, Battle of the St Vincent, John Jervis, 1st Earl St Vincent Saklatvala, Shapurji Sale, Robert Henry Salisbury, Thomas de Montacute Salisbury, William Longsword Salisbury, Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury Salisbury, Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne‐Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury Salisbury, Robert Arthur James Gascoyne‐Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury Salmond, John Maitland Salt, Barbara Samuel, Herbert Louis Sands, Bobby Sandwich, Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich Sandwich, John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich Sandys, (Edwin) Duncan, Baron Duncan‐Sandys Sarsfield, Patrick, Earl of Lucan Saxon Shore Scone Scoones, Geoffry Alan Percival
Pageliii scot and lot Scotland: history to 1058 Scotland: history 1058 to 1513 Scotland: history 1513 to 1603 Scotland: history 1603 to 1746 Scotland: history from 1746 Scott, Michael Scott, Percy Moreton Scott, Sheila (Christine) Scottish National Party SE‐5a seal (mark) Seaton, John Colborne, 1st Baron Seaton Sedgemoor, Battle of Sefton, Earl of Selborne, William Waldegrave Palmer Selden, John self‐denying ordinance Selkirk, Alexander Selkirk, Thomas Douglas Septennial Act Settlement, Act of seven bishops, trial of Sexton, Thomas Seymour, Jane Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury Sharp, Granville Shawcross, Hartley William Shawcross Sheehy‐Skeffington, Hannah Sheffield Outrages Sheil, Richard Lalor Shelburne, William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne shell scandal Sheppard, Jack (John) Sheriffmuir, Battle of Sherwood Forest shilling Shinwell, Emmanuel
Pageliv ship money Shore, Jane Shore, Peter David Short Parliament Shovell, Cloudesley Shrewsbury, Battle of Sicilian Business Sidmouth, Viscount Sidney, Algernon Sigebert, St Silures Silverman, (Samuel) Sidney Simnel, Lambert Simon, John Simon, John Allsebrook, 1st Viscount Simon Simpson, James Young Six Acts Six Articles Skelton, John Skene, William Forbes slave trade Sleeman, William Henry Sluis, Battle of Smith, F(rederick) E(dwin) Smith, Harry George Wakelyn Smith, Herbert Smith, John (colonist) Smith, John (politician) Smith‐Dorrien, Horace Lockwood Snell, Hannah Snow, John Snowden, Philip Soames, (Arthur) Christopher (John) Social Democratic Federation Social Democratic Party SOE Solemn League and Covenant Solway Moss, Battle of Somers, John, 1st Baron Somers of Evesham Somerset, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset
Pagelv Somersett's Case Southcott, Joanna South Sea Bubble Spa Fields riots Special Areas Acts Special Operations Executive Speke, John Hanning Spencer, George Alfred spinning jenny Spion Kop, Battle of Spithead Mutiny Stair, John Dalrymple, 2nd Earl of Stair Stamford Bridge, Battle of Stamp Act Standard, Battle of the stane street Stanhope, James Stanhope, 1st Earl Stanhope Stanihurst, Richard stannaries Star Chamber Starkie, Enid Mary Statute of Acton Burnell steam power Stenness Stephen Stephens, James Kenneth steward Stewart, (Robert) Michael (Maitland) Stirling Bridge, Battle of Stoke, Battle of Stokes mortar Stone, Benjamin Stone, Lawrence stone circles Stonehouse, John Thomson Stopford, Montagu George North Stormont Strachey, (Evelyn) John St Loe Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford Strode, William
Pagelvi Strongbow Stuart Stuart, Henry Benedict Maria Clement Stuart, Lady Arabella Stubbs, William Sturdee, Frederick Charles Doveton Succession, Acts of Suez Crisis Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk suffrage, universal Sugar Act Summerskill, Edith Clara Sunday school Sunderland, Robert Spencer, 2nd Earl of Sunderland Sunningdale Agreement Supremacy, Acts of surrender and regrant Surrey, Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey and 3rd Duke of Norfolk Sutcliffe, Peter Swing Riots Sydenham, Thomas Syers, Madge Sykes, Eric Syme, James
T Taff Vale case Taillefer Tailteann Games Talbot, Mary Anne Tamworth Manifesto Tandy, James Napper Tariff Reform League Taylor, A(lan) J(ohn) P(ercivale) Taylor, Rowland Teck Teignmouth, John Shore Tel‐el‐Kebir, Battle of Telford, Thomas Templewood of Chelsea, Samuel John Gurney Hoare Tenby, Gwilym Lloyd George
Pagelvii Ten Hours Act terrorism, Irish Test Act Tewkesbury, Battle of Texel, Battle of textiles industry thane Thatcher, Margaret Hilda thegn Theodore of Tarsus, St Thirkell, Angela Margaret Thistlewood, Arthur Thomas, (Thomas) George Thomas, James Henry Thompson, Edith three‐day week Throckmorton Plot Thurloe, John Thurlow, Edward, 1st Baron Thurlow Tillett, Ben(jamin) Tinchbrai, Battle of Tiptoft, John, 1st Earl of Worcester Titanic tithe Tobruk, Battles of Toleration Act Toleration, Act of Tolpuddle Martyrs Tone, (Theobald) Wolfe tonnage and poundage Tooke, John Horne Tory democracy Tostig Toulon, Battle of (1744) Toulon, Battle of (1793) tournament Tower of London (fortification) town, medieval Townshend, Charles (agriculturalist) Townshend, Charles (politician)
Pagelviii Townshend, Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend Acts Towse, Beachcroft Towton, Battle of Toynbee, Arnold Toynbee, Arnold Joseph trade, medieval Trades Union Congress Trafalgar, Battle of trainbands transportation Treaty of Paris, 1763 Treaty of Paris, 1783 Trelawny, Jonathan Trevithick, Richard trial by battle triangular trade Triennial Act Trinder, Tommy (Thomas Edward) Trollope, Frances Truck Acts True Leveller Tudor (dynasty) Tudor and Restoration London Tudor rose Tull, Jethro tunnage and poundage Turner, Ben Turpin, Dick (Richard) Tweeddale, John Hay, 2nd Earl and 1st Marquess of Tweeddale Tyler, Wat Tyndale, William Tyrconnell, Richard Talbot, Earl of Tyrconnell
U Ulster Defence Association Ulster Freedom Fighters Ulster plantation Ulster Unionist Party Ulster Volunteer Force Uniformity, Acts of
Pagelix Union, Acts of union flag unionism Union Movement United Irishmen United Kingdom United Kingdom: history 1714–1815 United Kingdom history 1815–1914 United Kingdom history 1914–45 universal suffrage Urquhart, Robert Elliot Uttley, Alison
V Valera, Éamon de Vallancey, Charles Vane, Henry Vane, Henry (the Elder) Van Praagh, Margaret (Peggy) Vansittart, Robert Gilbert Vaughan, Janet VE Day Vere, Francis Vere, Horace, Baron Vere of Tilbury Vergil, Polydore Verneuil, Battle of Verney, Edmund Vernon, Edward vestiarian controversy Victoria (Queen) Victory village, medieval villein Vimiero, Battle of Vinegar Hill, Battle of Vitoria, Battle of VJ Day Vortigern Vote of No Address
W Wade, George
Pagelx Wakefield, Battle of Wales: history to 1066 Wales: history 1066 to 1485 Wales: the Act of Union Walker, George Walker, James Cooper Walker, Peter Edward Wallace, William Wallas, Graham Walpole, Horace Walpole, Robert Walsingham, Francis Walter, Hubert Walter, Lucy Wansdyke wapentake Warbeck, Perkin Ward, Mrs Humphry Ward, Stephen Wardens of the Marches wardrobe wardship and marriage War Office Press Bureau War Propaganda Bureau Warwick, Richard Neville, 1st or 16th Earl of Warwick Waverley, John Anderson, 1st Viscount Waverley Waynflete, William Webb Webster, Margaret Wedmore welfare to work Wellesley, Richard Colley, Marquess Wellesley Werner, Alice Wessex West, Fred (1943–1995) and Rosemary (1953–) Western Rebellion Wester‐Wemyss, Rosslyn Erskine Wemyss, 1st Baron Westminster, Palace of Wexford, Battle of Wharton, Philip, 1st Duke of Wharton
Pagelxi Wharton, Thomas, 1st Marquess of Wharton Wheatley, John Whitbread, Samuel White, George Stewart White, Thomas Whitehead, George Whitelaw, William Stephen Ian White Ship Whittington, Dick (Richard) Widgery, John Passmore, Baron Widgery of South Molton Wilberforce, William Wild, Jonathan Wilkes, John William William (I) the Conqueror William (II) Rufus William (III) of Orange William IV William the Lion William of Waynfleet Williams, Betty Williams, Cicely Delphine William the Marshall Wilson, (James) Harold Wilson, Harriette Wilson, Henry Hughes Wilton Diptych Winchester, Battle of Winchester Cathedral Windham, William window tax Winslow, Edward Winstanley, Gerrard Witan Wolfe, James Wollstonecraft, Mary Wolseley, Garnet Joseph, 1st Viscount Wolseley Wolsey, Thomas women, medieval Women's Social and Political Union
Pagelxii Wood, (Henry) Evelyn Wood, (Howard) Kingsley Woodcock, George Woodforde, James Woodville, Elizabeth woolsack Worcester, Battle of Workmen's Compensation Act World War I soldiers Wright, Frances Wright, Peter Wulfstan, St Wyatt, Thomas Wyatt's Rebellion Wycliffe, John
Y yeoman Yeomen of the Guard Yevonde, Madame York (dynasty) York, Duke of York, Frederick Augustus, Duke of York York, Susannah York Minster Young, Arthur Young England Younger, George Younger, 1st Viscount Younger of Leckie Young Ireland Young Pretender Ypres, 1st Earl of
Z Z batteries Zion Mule Corps
Page1
A abdication crisis in British history, the constitutional upheaval of the period 16 November 1936 to 10 December 1936, brought about by the British king Edward VIII's decision to marry Wallis Simpson, a US divorcee. The marriage of the 'Supreme Governor' of the Church of England to a divorced person was considered unsuitable and the king abdicated on 10 December and left for voluntary exile in France. He was created Duke of Windsor and married Mrs Simpson on 3 June 1937.
Abercromby, Ralph (1734–1801) Scottish soldier. In 1801 he commanded an expedition to the Mediterranean, charged with the liquidation of the French forces left behind by Napoleon in Egypt. He fought a brilliant action against the French at Aboukir Bay 1801, but was mortally wounded at the battle of Alexandria a few days later.
Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron (1815–1895) Welsh politician. Born in Duffryn, Mid Glamorgan, he was Liberal member of Parliament for Merthyr from 1852 and held several political appointments, including the home secretaryship 1869–73. Aberdare was made a baron 1873 and was the first chancellor of the University of Wales 1894.
Aberdeen codename for the Chindit base north of Indaw, Burma (now Myanmar).
Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen (1784–1860) British Tory politician, prime minister from 1852 until 1855, when he resigned because of criticism provoked by the miseries and mismanagement of the Crimean War. George Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen Aberdeen English statesman 'His grief was such that at times he felt as if every drop of blood that would be shed would rest upon his head.' [On himself, quoted in John Bright, Diary, 1854]
Abhorrer member of an English court party in the reign of Charles II who 'abhorred' the opposition to the royal prerogative shown by the rival party, the Petitioners, led by Lord Shaftesbury. The former evolved into the Tories and the latter into the Whigs.
Abinger, James Scarlett (1769–1844) (1st Baron Abinger) British politician and judge. He successfully carried through a bill to amend the administration of justice 1830, but opposed the Reform Bill of 1831. He was raised to the Bench by Robert Peel 1834 as lord chief baron of the Court of Exchequer and created Baron Abinger
Page2 1835.
abjuration, oath of in England and Wales, oath formerly taken by holders of public office and originally imposed in the reign of William III, requiring the taker of the oath (juror) to abjure the claims of the Stuart pretender or his heirs to the throne. The juror also had to reject any claims made for the pope's jurisdiction in England, or for the notion that princes excommunicated by him could be deposed or murdered.
abjuration of the realm in medieval England, an alternative to outlawry for convicted criminals or those unwilling to stand trial. The abjuror, in sanctuary, would confess his or her crime to the local coroner who would specify a port of exit from the country, usually Dover. Carrying a cross and clad in sackcloth, the abjuror then had to travel to the port by main roads and leave by the first available ship.
abolitionism a movement culminating in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that aimed first to end the slave trade, and then to abolish the institution of slavery and emancipate slaves. The movement took place in Europe, mainly in the UK, and in the USA. Slavery was never widespread within the UK, but many UK citizens were involved with the slave trade and slavery flourished in the British colonies. The leading abolitionist in the UK was William Wilberforce, who persuaded parliament to ban the slave trade in 1807; all slaves within the British Empire were freed in 1833. In the USA, abolitionism was one of the key issues dividing the northern and southern states, leading to the American Civil War (1861–65). Slavery was officially abolished in the USA by the Emancipation Proclamation (1863) of President Abraham Lincoln, but could not be enforced until Union victory in 1865. Although governments made the final and official decision to end slavery, abolition was the culmination of the work of numerous antislavery groups who had campaigned over many decades. The groups were inspired by a number of beliefs, ranging from religious faith to liberalism. Their leaders and membership were drawn from a wide variety of social classes, from the wealthy and powerful to the poorest workers and farmers.
Abraham‐man wandering beggar of Elizabethan times, who was either demented or shammed lunacy in order to gain pity. The term is derived from the parable in Luke 16, where Lazarus the beggar is received into Abraham's bosom. Another name for these vagabonds was 'Tom o' Bedlam'.
Achurch, Janet (1864–1916) English actor. Her pioneering association with the works of Henrik Ibsen included leading roles in The Doll's House in 1889 and her production of Little Eyolf in 1896. George Bernard Shaw, who wrote Candida (1897) for her, described Achurch as 'a tragic actress of genius'. Achurch was born in Lancashire. She made her London debut in 1883 and subsequently toured with the actor‐manager Frank Benson, playing various Shakespearean roles. She retired in 1913.
Acton, John Emerich Edward Dalberg (1834–1902) (1st Baron Acton) British historian and
Page3 Liberal politician, leader of the liberal Catholic movement. He was a member of Parliament 1859–65, and became a friend and adviser of Prime Minister Gladstone. John Acton English historian and Liberal politician 'Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.' [Letter to Mandell Creighton April 1887]
Adams, Truda (1890–1958) (born Gertrude Sharp; later known as Truda Carter) English ceramicist. A founder member of Carter, Stabler, and Adams (Poole Pottery) in Dorset, she provided the majority of their trademark 'Poole' designs. Her ranges of brush‐stroke floral patterns, characterized by a restraint in colouring, were popular throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Adams was educated at the Royal Academy Schools, London, and moved to Durban, South Africa, in 1914. After returning to England around 1920–21, she helped to establish Carter, Stabler, and Adams and became their resident designer, producing material for the company until 1950. She exhibited in the Royal Academy's Ceramic Exhibition (1935) and the International Exhibition (1937) in Paris.
Addington, Henry, 1st Viscount Sidmouth (1757–1844) British Tory politician, prime minister 1801–04. As home secretary 1812–1822, he was responsible for much reprieve legislation, including the notorious Six Acts. He was created viscount in 1805. Henry Addington British prime minister 'I hate liberality ... Nine times out of ten it is cowardice, and the tenth time lack of principle.' [John Mitford Sayings of Lord Sidmouth]
Addled Parliament the English Parliament that met for two months in 1614 but failed to pass a single bill before being dissolved by James I. The king had grave financial difficulties and disputed frequently with Parliament, especially over duties levied by him. The king financed his lavish court by the sale of monopolies. He vainly tried to persuade the Commons to vote him money without settling the members' many grievances, especially over the king's Scottish favourites. His favouritism brought him great unpopularity.
Adelaide (1792–1849) Queen consort of William IV of Great
Page4 Britain and Ireland. Daughter of the Duke of Saxe‐Meiningen, she married William, then Duke of Clarence, in 1818. No children of the marriage survived infancy.
Admiralty, Board of the in the UK, the controlling department of state for the Royal Navy from the reign of Henry VIII until 1964, when most of its functions – apart from that of management – passed to the Ministry of Defence. The 600‐year‐old office of Lord High Admiral reverted to the sovereign.
Adrian IV (c. 1100–1159) (born Nicholas Breakspear) Pope 1154–59, the only English pope. He secured the execution of Arnold of Brescia and crowned Frederick I Barbarossa as German emperor. When he died, Adrian IV was at the height of a quarrel with Barbarossa over papal supremacy. He allegedly issued the controversial bull giving Ireland to Henry II of England in 1154. He was attacked for false representation, and the bull was subsequently refuted.
Afghan Wars three wars waged between Britain and Afghanistan to counter the threat to British India from expanding Russian influence in Afghanistan. First Afghan War (1838–42): the British invaded Afghanistan to protect their own interests after Persia, encouraged by Russia, became involved in the region. Although successful at first, a later Afghan rising drove them out of Afghanistan, and of the 4,000 British who formed the garrison of Kabul only one arrived safely at Jalalabad. Another British expedition was dispatched, which captured Kabul, released British prisoners there, and then evacuated the country. Second Afghan War (1878–80): General Roberts captured Kabul in 1789 and relieved Kandahar. Third Afghan War (1919): peace followed the dispatch by the UK of the first aeroplane ever seen in Kabul.
Page5 Afghan Wars
(Image © Billie Love)
Page6 General Roberts' British victory over the Ayoub Khan in September 1880, at the relief of Kandahar in Afghanistan. Following a 23‐day march from Kabul to Kandahar, Roberts' forces decisively defeated the Afghan army, ending the Second Afghan War of 1878–80.
agrarian revolution until the 1960s historians believed that there had been an 18th‐century revolution in agriculture, similar to the revolution that occurred in industry. They claimed that there had been sweeping changes, possibly in response to the increased demand for food from a rapidly expanding population. Major events included the enclosure of open fields; the development of improved breeds of livestock; the introduction of four‐course crop rotation; and the use of new crops such as turnips as animal fodder. Recent research, however, has shown that these changes were only part of a much larger, slower, ongoing process of development: many were in fact underway before 1750, and other breakthroughs, such as farm mechanization, did not become common until after 1945. causes of improvement The main cause of change seems to have been the rapidly growing population (from around 6 million in 1700 to 11 million in 1801), particularly in the towns, which created an increased demand for food. This was particularly important during the Napoleonic Wars, since Napoleon's Continental System prevented all trade with Europe; Britain had to produce more food, or starve. Prices rose rapidly, increasing profitability and encouraging an expansion of production; the Corn Laws also played a part in this. Villages that had been happy to be merely self‐sufficient now began to look to produce for the market – so the changes involved the adoption of a new capitalist business ethic by the farmers. Better transport also played a part, for it extended the hinterland of population areas, and allowed more farmers to produce for the market. Enclosure was also crucially important. In 1700 about half the arable land of England was held in open‐field strips. The open‐field system had some advantages, mainly social, but limited production. Enclosure rationalized the system of land‐holding, consolidated farmland, and gave farmers the opportunity to introduce the new methods. Agricultural propagandists such as Arthur Young and William Cobbett also helped the agrarian revolution, for they helped to create a climate of improvement. To a degree, production was increased because of technical improvements – new crops, crop rotations, selective breeding, new buildings and drainage, the use of manure, and new implements. However, change was uneven from region to region, and even from farm to farm, and very gradual. The full technological revolution in farming did not occur until after World War II. new crops The introduction of new crops – such as potatoes, red clover, and turnips – into Britain in the 17th century improved farming practices, since farmers could use them to feed their livestock throughout the winter. This meant that is was no longer necessary for animals to be slaughtered in the autumn so that meat could be salted for storage through the winter. Also, clover returned certain nutrients to the soil, and the growing of turnips meant that the land was thoroughly weeded by hoeing.
Page7 four‐course rotation The 18th century saw the replacement of the three‐field system of wheat–barley–fallow by the four‐course crop rotation system (wheat– turnips–barley–clover), which was designed to ensure that no land would need to lie fallow between periods of cultivation because if crops are rotated correctly they absorb different kinds and quantities of nutrients from the soil. The four‐course rotation system was subsequently popularized by enlightened landowners such as Viscount 'Turnip'Townshend and Thomas Coke, who used it to produce greatly increased crop yields on his farmland in Norfolk, and encouraged other farmers and landowners to use the same method. Because both Coke and Townshend lived in Norfolk the system also became known as the 'Norfolk System'. livestock farming Other pioneers of the new farming methods that were developed in Britain in the latter part of the 18th century included the livestock farmer Robert Bakewell, who improved the quality of horned stock and sheep by means of selective breeding (purposefully mating strong and healthy animals). His work resulted in a great reduction in the age at which bullocks and sheep were ready for the butcher. Other successful breeders included the Colling brothers of County Durham (Durham Shorthorns) and George Culley of Northumberland (Border Leicester sheep).
agricultural revolution see agrarian revolution.
agriculture, 19th‐century British after a period of depression following the Napoleonic Wars, agriculture developed rapidly during the 19th century. The landed interests countered the post‐war slump in agriculture with protective legislation, although the implementation of the Corn Laws led to rural poverty and discontent in the first half of the 19th century and contributed to the distress in Ireland caused by the potato famine. Following the repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846, the expanding urban population and improvements in transport opened up a greater market and led to what has been called the 'golden age' in British farming (1850–70). This, however, was followed by a great depression in agriculture that lasted until 1914, as rising imports of cheap foodstuffs undercut the British farmer.
agriculture, medieval in the Middle Ages, the open‐field system system of communal farming was prevalent in England during the Saxon period and under the feudal system of landholding which became dominant after the Norman Conquest. Medieval agriculture varied from place to place, depending on the land, the climate, and local customs. However, during the early part of the Middle Ages, much of England was farmed according to a two‐field system, while towards the end of the Middle Ages, many villages transferred to a three‐field system. An example of open‐field farming still survives at Laxton in Nottinghamshire. A typical two‐field system in the north of England would have an in‐field (used to grow crops in summer and keep the animals in winter) and an out‐field (where the animals were pastured in summer). Gradually, however, after the Norman Conquest, more and more lords began to convert the arable land on their estates to a three‐field system. The villagers would leave one of these fields fallow each year, allowing the sheep and cattle to graze the land so that the soil could recover its fertility. On the other two, wheat (for bread), barley (for beer), oats, or other crops such as peas or beans could be grown in a simple rotation. For example, in a village with a West Field, North Field, and East Field, in year one the West Field would be
Page8 planted with wheat, the North with barley, and the East left fallow; in year two the West Field would be left fallow, the North planted with wheat, and the East with barley; and in year three the West Field would be planted with barley, the North left fallow, and the East planted with wheat. Other key areas of the village might be the demesne (the land belonging to the lord of the manor), the meadow (the only source of fodder), some common land (on which the villagers were allowed to graze some animals), and the forest (for firewood). Under the feudal system, villages were farmed communally, and much of the produce went in dues to the lord. The reeve would organize the villagers to farm the lord's demesne and the communal open‐fields. The fields were divided into strips of roughly an acre (0.405 ha), signifying a day's work with a plough, and each villager would farm a few strips scattered around the three fields. The heavy, iron‐shared plough, pulled by a team of oxen, could cut a furrow of roughly a furlong (201.2 m), or a 'furrow long', before the team had to stop to rest. Because it always turned the soil to the right, medieval ploughing created the undulating, S‐shaped 'ridge‐and‐furrow' landscape which still survives in some parts of England. All the rest of the work – sowing broadcast, weeding, cutting the hay and reaping the crops with a sickle, threshing, and winnowing – had to be done by hand. A typical medieval village would consist of a cluster of huts around a village green. On the green might be the smithy and the pinfold (for stray cattle). Each hut would have a garden (sometimes called a toft) on which the villein (serf) might keep a few hens, grow additional food such as vegetables, herbs, and fruit, or keep bees to provide a little honey, the only form of sweetener. The lack of fodder crops meant that all the animals which were not needed for breeding next season had to be slaughtered in the autumn, and their meat smoked or pickled. Another drawback of the communal system was that its small scattered strips, theoretically intended to share good and bad land fairly, made efficient farming difficult, and common grazing made it easy for disease to spread quickly among livestock.
Airy, Anna (1882–1964) English artist, etcher, and writer. London's riverside criminal haunts were the main source of her inspiration, recurrent themes being cockfighting, gambling, and boxing. Her paintings of munitions factories were commissioned by the Imperial War Museum in 1918. Airy was born in Greenwich, London, and studied at the Slade School of Art, winning the Melville–Nettleship prize for three consecutive years. She was an occasional inspector in art to the Board of Education, and became a member of the Royal Society of Painters and Etchers and the Royal Institute of Oil Painters. Her written works include The Art of Pastel.
Albany, Alexander Stewart, 3rd Duke of (c. 1454–1485) Son of James II of Scotland, he usurped the throne of Scotland with English help. He was arrested by his brother, King James III, in 1479 but escaped to England and was recognized as king of Scotland in June 1482 by the English king Edward IV who invaded in support of his claim. In return he acknowledged English suzerainty over Scotland and did so when he again held the throne in 1484. He was forced to flee to France where he died.
Albany, John Stewart, 4th Duke of (1484–1536) Son of Alexander, 3rd Duke of Albany, he was made regent for the infant king James V in 1514 acting as an agent for the French king Francis I. He fled to France in 1517 where he was detained for a time under an agreement with the English but was allowed to return to Scotland when the
Page9 English declared war on France and Scotland in 1521. He led two invasions of England in 1522 and 1523, but was finally forced to leave Scotland for France in May 1524.
Albany, Robert Stewart, 1st Duke of (c. 1340–1420) Scottish noble and governor of Scotland 1402–20. His brother, Robert III of Scotland, was an invalid and so deemed unable to rule. Albany vied with Robert's elder son, David, Duke of Rothesay, for dominance and became de facto ruler after Rothesay's disgrace and death in 1402. He increased his power after the capture by the English of Robert's second son, the future James I, and Robert's subsequent death in 1406, ruling as governor of Scotland until his death in 1420 when he was succeeded by his son, Murdoch.
Albert, Prince Consort (1819–1861) Husband of British Queen Victoria from 1840. A patron of the arts, science, and industry, Albert was the second son of the Duke of Saxe Coburg‐Gotha and first cousin to Queen Victoria, whose chief adviser he became. He planned the Great Exhibition of 1851, the profits from which were used to buy the sites in London of all the South Kensington museums and colleges and the Royal Albert Hall, built in 1871. He died of typhoid. The Queen never fully recovered from his premature death, and remained in mourning for him for the rest of her life. Albert Consort of Queen Victoria 'I have had wealth, rank and power, but, if these things were all I had, how wretched I should be.' [Last words, attributed] Albert Prince Consort 'If I had a severe illness I should give up at once ... I have no tenacity of life.' [Conversation between Albert and Queen Victoria c. November 1861]
Albion name for Britain used by the ancient Greeks and Romans. It was mentioned by Pytheas of Massilia (4th century BC), and is probably of Celtic origin, but the Romans, having in mind the white cliffs of Dover, assumed it to be derived from the word albus (white).
Alcock, John William (1892–1919) English aviator. On 14 June 1919, he and Arthur Whitten‐Brown made the first non‐stop transatlantic flight, from Newfoundland to Ireland. He was awarded the KBE in
Page10 1919.
Alexander three kings of Scotland:
Alexander I (c. 1078–1124) King of Scotland from 1107, known as 'the Fierce'. He ruled over the area to the north of the rivers Forth and Clyde, while his brother and successor David ruled over the area to the south. He assisted Henry I of England in his campaign against Wales in 1114, but defended the independence of the church in Scotland. Several monasteries, including the abbeys of Inchcolm and Scone, were established by him.
Alexander II (1198–1249) King of Scotland from 1214, when he succeeded his father, William the Lion. Alexander supported the English barons in their struggle with King John after Magna Carta. The accession of Henry III of England allowed a rapprochement between the two countries, and the boundaries between England and Scotland were agreed by the Treaty of York in 1237. By the Treaty of Newcastle in 1244 he pledged allegiance to Henry III. Alexander consolidated royal authority in Scotland and was a generous patron of the church. In 1221 he married Joanna, the sister of Henry III. In 1239, after her death he married Marie de Coucy, with whom he had a son, Alexander III.
Alexander III (1241–1286) King of Scotland from 1249, son of Alexander II. After defeating the Norwegian forces in 1263, he was able to extend his authority over the Western Isles, which had been dependent on Norway. The later period of his reign was devoted to administrative reforms, which limited the power of the barons and brought a period of peace and prosperity to Scotland.
Alexander of Hillsborough, Albert Victor Alexander (1885–1965) (Viscount Hillsborough) British politician. He was First Lord of the Admiralty on three occasions: 1929–31, 1940, and 1945, and minister of defence 1947–50. In 1950 he was made a viscount. He was chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1950–51 and Labour leader in the House of Lords 1955–64.
Alexander 'the Magnificent' (died 1148) English cleric. He became bishop of Lincoln 1123. In the civil war over the accession to the throne he took the side of Stephen, although he had sworn allegiance to Matilda. Suspected of disloyalty, he was arrested, imprisoned, and dispossessed of his castles. Stephen was crowned anew 1146; it is assumed that Alexander performed the incoronation.
Alexandra (1844–1925) Queen consort of Edward VII of England, whom she married in 1863. She was the eldest daughter of Christian IX of Denmark. She bore five children, two boys and three girls. The elder son, Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence, died in 1892, and his brother reigned as George V.
Alfred the Great (c. 849–c. 901) Anglo‐Saxon king 871–899 who
Page11 defended England against Danish invasion and founded the first English navy. He succeeded his brother Aethelred to the throne of Wessex in 871, and a new legal code came into force during his reign. He encouraged the translation of scholarly works from Latin (some he translated himself), and promoted the development of the Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle. Through a combination of hard fighting and diplomacy Alfred managed to keep Wessex free of Danish control after the other Anglo‐Saxon kingdoms had succumbed. His skill as a military commander first came to light at the Battle of Ashdown in 871 when he led the Saxon army to victory against the Danes. Not all his campaigns were so successful; on a number of occasions he had to resort to buying off the Danes for a brief respite. His great victory at Edington in 878 secured the survival of Wessex, and his peace treaty with the Danish king Guthrum in 886 established a boundary between the Danelaw, east of Watling Street, and the Saxons to the west. The Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle says that following his capture of London in 866 'all the English people submitted to him, except those who were in captivity to the Danes'. In some respects, therefore, Alfred could be considered the first king of England. Alfred King of Wessex 'A king's raw materials and instruments of rule are a well‐peopled land, and he must have men of prayer, men of war, and men of work.' [Translation of Boëthius' Consolation of Philosophy II] Alfred King of Wessex from 871 'This I can truly say, that so long as I have lived I have striven to live worthily, and after my death to leave my memory to my descendants in good works.' [In his translation of Boethius' Consolations of Philosophy late 9th century] Welsh monk Asser Saxon chronicler 'Many Franks, Gauls, Pagans, Britons, Scots, and Armoricans, nobles and poor men alike, submitted voluntarily to his dominion; all of whom he ruled, loved, honoured and enriched as if they were his own people.' [Life of Alfred c. 900]
Aliens Act in the UK, an act of Parliament passed by the Conservative government in 1905 to restrict the immigration of 'undesirable persons' into Britain; it was aimed at restricting Jewish immigration.
Page12 Undesirable persons were defined as people who might be a charge on the poor rates because they were without means or infirm. Since the act appeared to be stimulated by the arrival of large numbers of impoverished Europeans, many of them Jews from the Russian Empire, Prime Minister Balfour was accused of anti‐Semitism.
Allen, William (1532–1594) English cardinal. His Catholicism conflicted with Elizabeth I's ecclesiastical policy and he went into exile in Europe. He lived in Rome from 1585 and his efforts for the reconversion of England to Catholicism became more political from this time. He was created a cardinal in 1587.
Alliance, the in UK politics, a loose union (1981–87) formed by the Liberal Party and Social Democratic Party (SDP) for electoral purposes. The Alliance was set up soon after the formation of the SDP, and involved a joint manifesto at national elections and the apportionment of constituencies in equal numbers to Liberal and SDP candidates. The difficulties of presenting two separate parties to the electorate as if they were one proved insurmountable, and after the Alliance's poor showing in the 1987 general election the majority of the SDP voted to merge with the Liberals to form the Social and Liberal Democrats, now known as the Liberal Democrats.
allodium (or allodial tenure) English legal term denoting land that is the absolute property of its owner, free from any feudal tenure or obligation to a superior. Since the Norman Conquest there has been no allodial land in England, for the laws declare all land to be the property of the sovereign. Before the Conquest the right was held to a certain extent, and it was common throughout the rest of northern Europe. In Scots law the term is applied to all movable property and to Crown lands, and land bought under the Scots Lands Clauses Consolidation Act. The term is also applied to the udal land in the Orkney and Shetland islands.
All the Talents, Ministry of government organized by William Grenville in 1806, on the death of William Pitt, and so named in derision by the opposition party.
Alnwick Castle 11th‐century castle, near England's border with Scotland; historic seat of the Percy family, dukes of Northumberland. It was the site of battles in 1092 and 1174 following Scottish invasions of Northumberland. The castle was much restored in the 19th century.
Amery, Leo(pold Charles Maurice Stennett) (1873–1955) British Conservative politician. He was First Lord of the Admiralty 1922–24, secretary for the colonies 1924–29, secretary for the dominions 1925–29, and secretary of state for India and Burma (now Myanmar) 1940–45.
Page13 Leo Amery British politician 'For twenty years he has held a season ticket on the line of least resistance, and gone wherever the train of events has carried him ..' [On Lord Asquith, in a speech in House of Commons, 1916] Leo Amery British politician 'You have sat too long here for any good you have been doing – In the name of God, go.' [Speech by Amery repeating Oliver Cromwell's words, addressed to Neville Chamberlain, House of Commons 7 May 1940]
Amherst, William Pitt (1773–1857) British diplomat. He failed in an ambassadorial mission to China 1816 to procure better terms for commerce between Britain and China, by his refusal to defer to the Chinese emperor. He was governor general of India 1823–28 and was involved in the first Burmese war 1824–26.
Amiens, peace of treaty signed in March 1802 which ended the Revolutionary Wars, a series of wars 1791–1802 between France and the combined armies of Britain, Austria, Prussia, and other continental powers, during the period of the French Revolution and Napoleon's subsequent campaign to conquer Europe. Under the terms of the treaty Britain was to restore all maritime conquests, except Trinidad and Ceylon, to France, Spain, and Holland; France agreed to evacuate Naples; the integrity of Portugal was recognized; the independence of the Ionian Islands was agreed upon; both French and British armies evacuated Egypt which was restored to Turkey; and Malta was similarly restored to the Knights of Malta.
ancient demesne estate or manor vested in the English monarch at the time of the Norman Conquest and recorded in the Domesday Book. The tenants of ancient demesnes did not have to pay danegeld, tolls, duties, or fines, and did not have to serve on juries.
Ancient Order of Hibernians (AOH) Irish‐American Catholic fraternal society, founded in New York in 1836 to aid recently arrived Irish emigrants, and maintain contacts within the Irish diaspora and with Ireland. Politically radicalized in the 1860s and 1870s through its association with the revolutionary Fenian organization Clan‐Na‐Gael, it became more moderate in the 1880s. After 1900 the AOH gained influence in Ireland as the political machine of Belfast nationalist Joseph Devlin, and its conservative brand of nationalism was confirmed after the foundation of Northern Ireland. Concentrating now on voluntary community and charitable work, it also
Page14 functions as a useful network for the Catholic business community.
Anderson shelter in the UK, a simple air‐raid shelter used during World War II which could be erected in a garden to provide protection for a family. Tens of thousands were produced and they undoubtedly saved thousands of lives during the air raids on the UK.
André, John (1751–1780) English soldier. He was adjutant general to the British forces during the American Revolution. In 1780 he was appointed to carry on negotiations with the American general Benedict Arnold, who offered to betray his command at the strategic West Point, New York State. André was captured by General George Washington's army and was tried and hanged as as spy. John André British army major in the American Revolution 'I am reconciled to my death, but I detest the mode. It will be but a momentary pang.' [Last words before being shot as a British spy by the Americans 1780]
angel English gold coin introduced in 1465, named after the image of the Archangel Michael embossed on the face. They were worth 6 shillings and 8 pence, and half‐angels were minted into the 17th century.
Angell, (Ralph) Norman (1874–1967) British writer on politics and economics. In 1910 he acquired an international reputation with his book The Great Illusion, which maintained that any war must prove ruinous to the victors as well as to the vanquished. He was awarded the Nobel Peace for Prize in 1933 for his work on the economic futility of war. He was knighted in 1931.
Angle member of the Germanic tribe that occupied the Schleswig‐Holstein district of North Germany known as Angeln. The Angles, or Angli, invaded Britain after the Roman withdrawal in the 5th century and settled in East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. The name 'England' (Angleland) is derived from this tribe.
Anglesey, Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey (1768–1854) British soldier and administrator. During the Napoleonic Wars, he led an unsuccessful cavalry charge at the Battle of Waterloo, and was created Marquess of Anglesey for his bravery. He was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 1828 but was recalled by the Duke of Wellington for supporting Catholic emancipation; he was reappointed in 1830 by Prime Minister Charles Grey, and until 1833 was responsible for the Irish Board of Education.
Page15 Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey British cavalry leader 'The Queen, and may all your wives be like her.' [Said when pressed by a mob of her sympathizers to cheer George IV's queen, Caroline of Brunswick, at the time of her trial 1820]
Anglo‐Irish Agreement (or Hillsborough Agreement) concord reached in 1985 between the UK prime minister Margaret Thatcher and Irish prime minister Garret FitzGerald. One sign of the improved relations between the two countries was increased cooperation between police and security forces across the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. The pact also gave the Irish Republic a greater voice in the conduct of Northern Ireland's affairs. However, the agreement was rejected by Northern Ireland Unionists as a step towards renunciation of British sovereignty. Following further talks in March 1988, the UK and Irish prime ministers issued a joint statement in Northern Ireland. The statement did not envisage any particular outcome, but specified that the consent of the majority of the people of Northern Ireland was required before there could be any constitutional change. All‐party peace talks were planned during the Irish Republican Army (IRA) ceasefire from 1994 to 1996, but were delayed by the IRA's unwillingness to decommission its arms prior to full British troop withdrawal from Northern Ireland. After the ceasefire was restored in July 1997, multiparty peace talks on the future of Northern Ireland started in September 1997.
Anglo–Irish relations war, diplomacy, and accord have marked relations between the UK and Ireland in the 20th century. In 1900 the island of Ireland was governed by the British government at Westminster as an integral part of the UK. By the end of the century only Northern Ireland (6 of Ireland's traditional 32 counties) remained in the UK, the majority of Ireland having been granted independence as the Irish Free State under the 1921 Anglo‐Irish Treaty (Treaty of London). The UK government's Ireland Act of 1949 formally recognized the secession of the Republic of Ireland from dominion status, and confirmed citizens of the Republic in the rights that they had hitherto enjoyed in the UK.
Anglo‐Irish Treaty in Irish history, articles of agreement between Britain and southern Ireland signed in London in December 1921, which confirmed the end of the Anglo‐Irish War (1919–21) but then precipitated the Irish Civil War (1922–23). The settlement created the Irish Free State within the British Commonwealth and endorsed the creation of Northern Ireland. (Previously, the 1920 Government of Ireland Act had provided for partition of Ireland and two home rule parliaments.) Republicans split into pro‐Treaty and anti‐Treaty factions, opposition mainly centring on the subjugation of the Irish to the British monarchy, by the appointment of a British governor general, and an oath of allegiance to Britain required by members of the Parliament of the Irish Free State. Civil war was initiated by the provisional government of the Free State in 1922 to crush the anti‐Treaty movement. Following the truce between the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and British government forces in July 1921, five Irish delegates including Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith
Page16 travelled to London to negotiate a peace settlement with the Liberal government of British prime minister David Lloyd George (1863– 1945). Controversially, the president of Dáil Éireann (parliament) and leader of the nationalist movement, Éamon de Valera, chose not to accompany them. The subsequent settlement, reluctantly signed by the delegates on 6 December under Lloyd George's threat of 'immediate and terrible war', granted dominion status to the southern 26 counties but confirmed the partition of Ireland to create Northern Ireland (six of the nine counties of Ulster), established by the Government of Ireland Act (1920). The Treaty granted a substantial degree of political and economic autonomy. It allowed for the creation of an army but significantly limited Irish sovereignty by retaining control of a number of strategic ports. Constance Markievicz Irish politician 'I have seen the stars, and I am not going to follow a flickering will o' the wisp.' [Speaking in the Dáil (Irish parliament) in 1921, against the Anglo‐Irish Treaty.]
Anglo‐Irish War (or the War of Independence) conflict in Ireland 1919–21, between the Irish Republican Army (IRA), the paramilitary wing of Sinn Fein, and British government forces, reinforced by the ex‐service Auxiliaries and Black and Tans. Its outbreak is usually dated to the IRA's killing of two policemen in Soloheadbeg, County Tipperary, on 21 January 1919. Following a war of guerrilla tactics, ambushes, assassinations, and reprisals, a truce negotiated in July 1921 led to the Anglo‐Irish Treaty, which established the Irish Free State. Over 550 soldiers and police and more than 750 volunteers and civilians died during the conflict. Despite the Soloheadbeg incident, which coincided with the day of the first meeting of the Dáil, the illegal republican parliament in Dublin, IRA attacks against the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) and other targets had begun in 1918 against the wishes of Sinn Fein, the political wing of the republican movement. The IRA was nominally controlled by the Dáil minister for defence Cathal Brugha (1874–1922) and IRA headquarters under Michael Collins and Chief of Staff Richard Mulcahy (1886–1971), but little effective control was exercised over local IRA units. Collins's network of spies and assassins effectively disrupted British intelligence in Dublin. The fighting was unevenly distributed and concentrated in central Munster and the border regions of Ulster. IRA volunteers were predominantly drawn from the lower middle‐class youths of rural and small‐town Ireland. The conflict escalated in 1920 when the RIC was strengthened with two forces of ex‐servicemen known as the Auxiliaries and Black and Tans, which both earned unsavoury reputations. The harsh tactics adopted by government forces and condoned in London, including murder, looting, and arson, undermined the credibility of British rule in Ireland. By the spring of 1920 British forces had withdrawn from hundreds of garrisons in rural Ireland while flying columns, full‐time mobile units of 'on the run' IRA personnel, engaged in guerrilla tactics. When both sides had fought to near‐exhaustion with no clear victor in sight, a truce was called in July 1921 to allow peace talks to begin.
Page17 Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle a history of England from the Roman invasion to the 11th century, consisting of a series of chronicles written in Old English by monks, begun in the 9th century (during the reign of King Alfred), and continuing until 1154. The Chronicle, comprising seven different manuscripts, forms a unique record of early English history and also of the development of Old English prose up to its final stages. By 1154 Old English had been superseded by Middle English. Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle 'In this king's time there was nothing but disturbance and wickedness and robbery, for forthwith the powerful men who were traitors rose up against him.' [Referring to the reign of King Stephen Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle early 12th century]
Anne (1665–1714) Queen of Great Britain and Ireland 1702–14. She was the second daughter of James, Duke of York, who became James II, and his first wife, Anne Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. She succeeded William III in 1702. Events of her reign include the War of the Spanish Succession, Marlborough's victories at Blenheim, Ramillies, Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and the union of the English and Scottish parliaments in the 1707 Act of Union. Anne received a Protestant upbringing, and in 1683 married Prince George of Denmark (1653–1708). Of their many children only one survived infancy: William, Duke of Gloucester (1689–1700). For the greater part of her life Anne was a close friend of Sarah Churchill (1660– 1744), the wife of John Churchill (1650–1722), afterwards created 1st Duke of Marlborough in 1702. The Churchills' influence was partly responsible for her desertion of her father for William of Orange, her brother‐in‐law, later William III, during the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The Churchills' influence later also led her to engage in Jacobite intrigues. Although her sympathies were Tory, she accepted a predominantly Whig government 1704–10. The influence of the Churchills began to decline from 1707. After a violent quarrel in 1710, Sarah Churchill was dismissed from court, and Abigail Masham succeeded the duchess as Anne's favourite, using her influence to further the interests of the Tories. Anne Queen of Great Britain and Ireland 'As I know my heart to be entirely English, I can very sincerely assure you that there is not one thing you can expect or desire of me which I shall not be ready to do for the happiness or prosperity of England.' [First speech to Parliament, March 1702]
Anne of Bohemia (1366–1394) First wife of Richard II of England from 1382 until her death from the plague 1394. The eldest daughter of Emperor Charles IV by his fourth wife, Elizabeth of Pomerania, she married Richard January 1382 as part of attempts by her brother, Emperor Wenceslas, to form an anti‐French alliance to promote his
Page18 candidate for the papacy. Despite threats of French interception, Anne reached England December 1381. There is no evidence that she promoted the religious teachings of John Wycliffe, but her Bohemian servants introduced his writings to the early Protestant thinker, John Hus. She died of pestilence and was given a sumptuous funeral by her husband.
Anne of Cleves (1515–1557) Fourth wife of Henry VIII of England, whom she married in 1540. She was the daughter of the Duke of Cleves, and was recommended to Henry as a wife by Thomas Cromwell, who wanted an alliance with German Protestantism against the Holy Roman Empire. Henry did not like her looks, had the marriage declared void after six months, pensioned her, and had Cromwell beheaded.
Anne of Denmark (1574–1619) Queen consort of James VI of Scotland (from 1603 James I of England). She was the daughter of Frederick II of Denmark and Norway, and married James in 1589. She bore him five children, two of whom survived: Charles I and Elizabeth of Bohemia. Anne was suspected of Catholic leanings and was notably extravagant but seems to have had little influence on state affairs.
Annesley, James (1715–1760) Irish claimant to the earldom of Anglesea, whose eventful early life is thought to have been the model for Robert Louis Stevenson's adventure novel Kidnapped 1886. Born in Dunmaine, County Wexford, Annesley was believed to be the son of Mary Sheffield, Lady Altham. In 1728, when aged just 13, he was kidnapped and shipped as a slave to the American plantations at the instigation of his uncle, who wanted to thwart James' claim to the earldom and take the title himself. After gaining his freedom, Annesley returned to Ireland in 1741 and confronted his uncle, who assaulted him, was duly convicted (though not for the original abduction), and stripped of his title. His claim was recognized but, because of lack of funds, he was unable to take his seat in the House of Lords.
Anning, Mary (1799–1847) English fossil collector. In 1811 she discovered in a Dorset cliff the fossil skeleton of an ichthyosaur, now in the Natural History Museum, London. She also discovered the first plesiosaur in 1821 and Dimorphodon, the first pterodactyl, in 1828. Born in Lyme Regis, Dorset, she was the daughter of a carpenter and vendor of fossil specimens.
Anson, George (1697–1762) (1st Baron Anson) English admiral who sailed round the world. During the War of the Austrian Succession, he was made commodore of the South American squadron, attacking the Spanish colonies and shipping; he returned home by circumnavigating the globe (1740–1744), with £500,000 of Spanish treasure. Appointed to the Board of the Admiralty in 1745, he carried out reforms that increased the efficiency of the British fleet and contributed to its success in the Seven Years' War (1756–63) against France.
Page19 Anti‐Corn Law League an extra‐parliamentary pressure group formed in the UK in September 1838 by Manchester industrialists, and led by Liberals Richard Cobden and John Bright. It argued for free trade and campaigned successfully against duties on the import of foreign corn to Britain imposed by the Corn Laws, which were repealed in 1846.
Antrim, Randal Macdonnell (1609–1683) (1st Marquess of Antrim, Earl of Dunluce) Irish nobleman and Royalist. He was created a marquess 1643 on account of his (subsequently unfulfilled) promise to raise an army of 10,000 in Ireland for the service of Charles I.
Anwykyll, John (died 1487) English schoolmaster and grammarian. He was the first headmaster of William Waynflete's school attached to Magdalen College, Oxford. He produced a grammar book, Compendium totius grammaticae (printed in Oxford in 1483, reprinted in Deventer, the Netherlands, in 1489 with a preface by the Italian humanist poet Pietro Carmeliano). This work was influenced by the writings of Lorenzo Valla and Niccolò Perotti and suggests that education at the new school included elements of the studia humanitatis.
Apostles discussion group founded in 1820 at Cambridge University, England; members have included the poet Tennyson, the philosophers G E Moore and Bertrand Russell, the writers Lytton Strachey and Leonard Woolf, the economist J M Keynes, and the spies Guy Burgess and Anthony Blunt.
Aquinas, St Thomas (1225–1274) Italian philosopher and theologian, the greatest figure of the school of scholasticism. He was a Dominican monk, known as the 'Angelic Doctor'. In 1879 his works were recognized as the basis of Catholic theology. His Summa contra Gentiles/Against the Errors of the Infidels (1259–64) argues that reason and faith are compatible. He assimilated the philosophy of Aristotle into Christian doctrine. He was canonized in 1323. His unfinished Summa Theologica, begun 1265, deals with the nature of God, morality, and the work of Jesus. His works embodied the world view taught in universities until the mid‐17th century, and include scientific ideas derived from Aristotle. The philosophy of Aquinas is known as Thomism. St Thomas Aquinas Italian philosopher and theologian 'All I have written seems to me like so much straw ... compared with what has been revealed to me.' [Quoted in F C Copleston Aquinas]
Page20 St Thomas Aquinas Italian philosopher and theologian 'Grace does not abolish nature, but perfects it.' [Quoted in Gordon Leff Medieval Thought: St Augustine to Ockham] St Thomas Aquinas Italian philosopher and theologian 'It sometimes happens that someone is a good citizen who has not the quality according to which someone is also a good man.' [Quoted in Walter Ullmann A History of Political Thought: The Middle Ages]
Aram, Eugene (1704–1759) English murderer, the subject of works by the English novelist Edward Bulwer Lytton, the English poet Thomas Hood, and others. He was a schoolmaster in Knaresborough, Yorkshire, and achieved some distinction as a philologist. In 1745 he was tried and acquitted on a charge concerned with the disappearance of a local shoemaker. Several years later he was arrested in Lynn, Norfolk, following the discovery of a skeleton in a cave at Knaresborough. He was tried at York, confessed to the murder after his conviction, and was hanged.
Arbroath, Declaration of declaration made on 26 April 1320 by Scottish nobles of their loyalty to King Robert (I) the Bruce and of Scotland's identity as a kingdom independent of England. A response to papal demands that the Scots should yield to English claims, the document was probably composed by Robert the Bruce's chancellor, Bernard de Linton. In the 20th century, it has become a manifesto for Scottish nationalism.
Arcadia conference in World War II, meeting between Winston Churchill and President Roosevelt in Washington, DC, 22 December 1941–7 January 1942. They agreed that Germany was to be the prime opponent and that the Combined Chiefs of Staff would be the supreme directing authority for the Allied military effort.
Arch, Joseph (1826–1919) English Radical member of Parliament and trade unionist, founder of the National Agricultural Union (the first of its kind) 1872.
Arctic convoys in World War II, series of supply convoys sailing from the UK to the USSR around the North Cape to Murmansk, commencing October 1941. The natural hazards of sailing in these waters were greatly increased by the activity of German submarines and surface ships,
Page21 together with German aircraft operating from bases in northern Norway, and casualties were often heavy. In spite of such losses, the convoys delivered thousands of tanks and aircraft, 356,000 trucks, 50,000 jeeps, 1,500 locomotives, and 9,800 freight wagons in the course of the war.
Argyll Line of Scottish peers who trace their descent to the Campbells of Lochow. The earldom dates from 1457. It was created by James I, who conferred the title on Lord Campbell (died 1493), from whom the greatness of the family dates. The 2nd Earl was killed at Flodden, the 3rd Earl died 1530, whilst the 4th Earl was the first of the great Scottish nobility to become Protestant.
Argyll, Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll (1530–1573) adherent of the Scottish presbyterian John Knox. A supporter of Mary Queen of Scots from 1561, he commanded her forces after her escape from Lochleven Castle in 1568. Following her defeat at Langside, he revised his position, made peace with the regent, James Stuart, Earl of Murray, and became Lord High Chancellor of Scotland in 1572. He succeeded to the earldom in 1558.
Argyll, Archibald Campbell (1598–1661) (8th Earl and 1st Marquess of Argyll) Opponent of the church policy of Charles I in Scotland. He joined the parliamentary side in the English Civil War, defeated several Royalist risings in Scotland, and fought a campaign against the Royalist Montrose. He negotiated with the king after the surrender at Newark, and attempted to moderate the parliamentary terms. He lost power when the king was beheaded, and although he supported Charles II in his attempt to regain the crown, his power passed to the Hamilton family. He was executed for complicity in parliamentary plots.
Argyll, Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl and 2nd Marquess of Argyll (1629–1685) a Royalist, he was imprisoned by Cromwell 1657–60. After the Restoration he was raised to favour and high position by Charles II, but he opposed the Test Act which required public office holders to declare their belief in Protestantism, and was tried for treason and condemned to death 1681. He escaped to Holland and there agreed to the Monmouth plot. Returning to Scotland, he tried to raise the Campbells, but failed and was captured and beheaded.
Argyll, John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll (1678–1743) One of the founders of the union of Scotland and England 1707. He was a fearless soldier, and fought at Oudenaarde and Malplaquet during the War of the Spanish Succession. Later in the war he took command in Spain. He was deprived of his offices on his return for his outspoken criticism of the ministry. Restored to favour under George I, he was instrumental in putting down the 1715 Jacobite rebellion.
Argyll, George John Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll (1823–1900) Liberal politician who held several ministerial posts. He resigned the office of Lord Privy Seal 1881 on the question of an Irish Land Bill. He was also an opponent of Irish home rule. Succeeded to dukedom 1847.
Argyll, John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914) Son of the 8th
Page22 Duke of Argyll and successor to the title 1900. He married Princess Louise, daughter of Queen Victoria, 1871. He was governor general of Canada 1878–83.
Arkwright, Richard (1732–1792) English inventor and manufacturing pioneer who in 1768 developed a machine for spinning cotton (he called it a 'water frame'). In 1771 he set up a water‐powered spinning factory and in 1790 he installed steam power in a Nottingham factory. He was knighted in 1786. Arkwright
(Image © Research Machines plc)
The 'water frame' for spinning cotton, designed by British inventor Richard Arkwright in 1768. Although so‐called because it was water‐ powered, it was originally driven by mule. From 1790 onwards it was powered by steam engine. Its increased efficiency allowed Arkwright's factories to successfully compete with Indian calico
Page23 manufacturers. Edward Baines English historian '[Arkwright] separated from his wife not many years after their marriage, because she, convinced that he would starve their family by scheming when he should have been saving, broke some of his experimental models of machinery.' [On Richard Arkwright, in History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain]
Arlington, Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington (1618–1685) English politician. He fought for the Royalists in the English Civil War, and was employed afterwards by Charles I as his agent in Madrid. Returning to England at the Restoration, he became a member of the Cabal. He was created Lord Arlington 1663, and Earl of Arlington 1672. In 1674 he was unsuccessfully impeached as a promoter of popery, a self‐ aggrandizer, and a betrayer of trust.
Arminianism high church school of Christian theology opposed to Calvin's doctrine of predestination which flourished under James I and Charles I, and later formed the basis of Wesleyan Methodism. Named after a Dutch Protestant theologian, Jacob Arminius (1560–1609), it was associated in England with William Laud, bishop of London and later archbishop of Canterbury. It was first promoted by Charles, as Prince of Wales, and the Duke of Buckingham, to the annoyance of James I. Arminianism was denounced when Parliaments were called again in 1640, after the 11‐year period of Charles's personal rule. With its emphasis on free will, the divine institution of bishops, and 'the beauty of holiness', Arminianism undermined central tenets of the Puritanism or Calvinism which hitherto dominated the Elizabethan and Jacobean church. Arminians were also perceived as supporting many of Charles's more unpopular policies, such as the imposition of ship money and the Bishops' Wars in Scotland.
Armitage, Edward (1817–1896) English painter. He produced paintings on historical and biblical subjects, including the frescoes Death of Marmion and Personification of the Thames in the House of Lords. Armitage was born in London. He studied under the French historical artist Paul Delaroche and became professor at the Royal Academy Schools in 1875.
Armstrong, Henry Edward (1848–1937) English chemist. His pioneering work in a number of areas of organic chemistry, included investigations into the structure and reactions of benzene and naphthalene compounds. He also speculated on the state of ions in aqueous solution. Armstrong was born in London. He studied chemistry at the Royal College of Chemistry and began research with the British chemist Edward Frankland, but received his PhD from Leipzig in 1870 for work with the German chemist Hermann Kolbe. He
Page24 returned to the UK to become professor at the London institutions which later became Imperial College, and remained there until his retirement in 1911.
Arnold, Joseph (1782–1818) English botanist. In 1818 he discovered the largest flower known, at Pulau Lebar, Sumatra. The plant, measuring nearly a metre across and weighing almost 7 kg/15 lb, was later named Rafflesia arnoldii by the Scottish botanist Robert Brown. Arnold was born in Beccles, Suffolk. He showed a childhood interest in botany and published his findings in various magazines. After graduating in medicine in 1807 at Edinburgh University, he entered the navy in 1808. He sailed to Botany Bay as the doctor on a ship of female convicts in 1815. During this trip he made an extensive collection of insects, especially those from South America and Australia, although many were destroyed by a fire on board his ship The Indefatigable, on its return journey. He visited Java with the British colonial administrator Stamford Raffles, who subsequently invited Arnold to accompany him to Sumatra as a naturalist. Arnold died there of a fever in July 1818. His collection of shells and fossils was donated to the Linnaean Society.
Arran, James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran (c. 1515–1575) Scottish nobleman, Regent of Scotland during the minority of Mary Stuart. In 1554 he resigned his position as regent to the Queen Mother, Mary of Guise, and went into exile in France. He returned to Scotland in 1569 as a strong supporter of Mary's cause but by 1573 had been forced to acknowledge James VI's authority.
Arran, James Stewart, Earl of Arran (died 1595) Scottish statesman who claimed the earldom and estates of Arran during the insanity of his cousin, the 3rd Earl. He overthrew the Earl of Morton, who had been Regent of Scotland for Mary Queen of Scots since 1566, and, with the Duke of Lennox, managed the affairs of Scotland until 1585, when he was deprived of his authority. He was assassinated.
Arras, Battle of in World War II, Allied attack on German forces holding the French town of Arras on 21 May 1940. Although the Allies were eventually beaten off, the German general Rommel's report of being attacked by 'hundreds of tanks' led to a 24‐hour delay in the German advance which gave the British vital time to organize their retreat through Dunkirk.
array, commission of in England, system of universal military conscription dating from the 13th century, when the obligation to serve the king was extended to serfs. Able‐bodied men between the ages of 15 and 60 in each shire were selected by local commissioners to serve in a force paid for by the county. Although hired soldiers predominated in royal armies by the following century, in the 16th century the power of array was accorded to lords‐lieutenant. During the Civil War, Charles I issued commissions to raise troops for the royalist armies.
Arthur (lived 6th century) semi‐legendary Romano‐British warleader who led British resistance against the Saxons, Picts, and Scots in the first half of the 6th century. He was probably a warlord rather than a king. He operated throughout Britain, commanding a small force of mobile warriors, reminiscent of the late Roman comitatenses (line units). Arthur is credited with a great victory over the Saxons at Mount Badon, possibly in
Page25 Dorset. Arthur is said to have been born in Tintagel, Cornwall, and buried in Glastonbury, Somerset, although his life is too shrouded in legend for any of the details to be certain. His legendary base, 'Camelot', has been tentatively identified as a hill fort at South Cadbury in Somerset.
Arthur, Duke of Brittany (1187–1203) Grandson of Henry II of England and nephew of King John. As a rival for the throne, Arthur was taken prisoner by John and died in Rouen, France, possibly murdered at John's instigation.
Arthur, Prince of Wales (1486–1502) Eldest son of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. He was made Prince of Wales 1489, and married Catherine of Aragón 1501, when they were both 15, but died the next year, allegedly without consummating the marriage. Arthur Prince of Wales 'I have been this night in the midst of Spain ... It is a good pastime to have a wife.' [Deposition of Sir Anthony Willoughby as evidence at a divorce hearing between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon that her marriage with Prince Arthur had been consummated. Quoted in William Cobbett State Trials]
Articles, Lords of see Lords of the Articles.
Arundel, Thomas Howard (1586–1646) (2nd Earl of Arundel) English politician and patron of the arts. Succeeded to earldom 1595. The Arundel Marbles, part of his collection of Italian sculptures, were given to Oxford University in 1667 by his grandson.
Ascham, Roger (c. 1515–1568) English scholar and royal tutor. His writings include Toxophilus (1545), a treatise on archery written in dialogue form, and an educational treatise The Scholemaster, published by his widow in 1570. His works could be taken as exemplary of an English Protestant schizophrenia: on the one hand, a mastery of the skills pioneered by the humanists, on the other, a distrust of Italy and all things Italian. In 1548 Ascham was appointed tutor to Princess Elizabeth. He retained favour under Edward VI and Queen Mary (despite his Protestant views), and returned to Elizabeth's service as her secretary after she became queen. Roger Ascham English scholar and royal tutor
Page26 'He that will write well in any tongue must follow the counsel of Aristotle: to speak as the common people do, to think as wise men do.' [Toxophilus]
Ashanti Wars four British expeditions 1873–1901 to the interior of modern Ghana to wrest control of trade in West Africa from the indigenous Ashanti people and end the slave trade which thrived in the area. The first Ashanti War broke out in April 1873 when Garnet Wolseley was sent with 2,500 troops to defeat the Ashanti ruler, the Asantehene Kofi Karikari, and free the coastal regions from further incursions. This was settled by the Treaty of Fomena on 14 March 1874 under which the Asantehene promised free trade, an open road to Kumasi, an end to human sacrifices, and to pay an indemnity to Britain. The agreement was broken and further expeditions followed: the area was declared a British protectorate in August 1896 and the Asantehene was deported. The Ashanti territory was incorporated into the neighbouring Gold Coast colony in September 1901.
Ashby, Margery Irene (1882–1981) (born Margery Corbett) English feminist. She attended the first International Women's Suffrage Congress in Berlin (1904) and subsequently worked with various women's organizations, becoming president of the International Alliance of Women 1923–46. She also co‐founded the National Union of Townswomen's Guilds in 1929. Her international work was recognized with an honorary degree awarded by Mount Holyoke College, USA. Educated initially at home, she later studied classics at Newnham College, Cambridge. Between 1918 and 1944 she stood as a Liberal candidate seven times; her father was the Liberal member of Parliament for East Grinstead.
Ashingdon, Battle of (or Assandun) victory on 18 October 1016 of King Canute's Danish army over King Edmund II ('Ironside') at the village of Ashingdon, Essex. Following the battle, only Wessex remained in English hands and when Edmund died 30 November, Canute ruled the whole kingdom. See also Danelaw.
Ashley, Jack (1922–) (Lord Ashley) British Labour politician. Profoundly deaf since 1967, Ashley campaigned inside and outside Parliament for the deaf and other disability groups. He sat as member of Parliament for Stoke‐on‐Trent from 1966–92, when he was raised to the peerage.
Ashmole, Elias (1617–1692) English antiquary. His collection forms the basis of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, England. He wrote books on alchemy, astrology, and on antiquarian subjects, and amassed a fine library and a collection of curiosities, both of which he presented to Oxford University in 1682. His collection was housed in the 'Old Ashmolean' (built 1679–83); the present Ashmolean Museum was erected in 1897.
Ashmolean Museum museum of art and antiquities in Oxford, England, founded in 1683 to house
Page27 the collections given to Oxford University by the historian and antiquary Elias Ashmole. Its collections include European, Near Eastern, and Oriental art and archaeology; paintings and drawings by Raphael, Michelangelo, and other Renaissance artists; watercolours by J M W Turner; and works by Pre‐Raphaelite and major British and European artists of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. It was the first museum in Britain to open to the public. The original collection included natural and artificial curiosities left to Ashmole by John Tradescant in 1659. For two centuries it was housed in the old Ashmolean building in Broad Street, Oxford. About 1860 the natural history exhibits went to the University Museum and the manuscripts, books, and coins to the Bodleian Library; in 1886 the ethnographic specimens went to the Pitt Rivers Museum. In 1894 the archaeological material, greatly expanded by the English archaeologist Arthur Evans, was moved to an extension of the galleries in Beaumont Street; in 1908 this joint institution was renamed the Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology.
Aske, Robert (c. 1500–1537) English lawyer who led the Pilgrimage of Grace 1536, an uprising against the enclosure of common land. He was double‐crossed by Henry VIII, who promised various concessions but then had Aske executed. After considerable success, Aske ordered his followers to disperse to their homes on the promise of a royal pardon and an investigation of their grievances. Henry VIII invited him to London, allegedly to discuss the trouble, and Aske returned home with assurances sufficient to satisfy the rebels. However, in May 1537 Aske was arrested, tried for high treason, and eventually hanged at York.
Askew, Anne (1521–1546) English Protestant martyr. An early convert to the Reformation's doctrines, she was arrested in 1545 on a charge of heresy. After examination and torture on the rack, she was burned in Smithfield, London. Askew was born near Grimsby in Humberside, but had travelled to London to sue for separation from her husband, who had rejected her because of her beliefs.
Askey, Arthur (1900–1982) English comedian. He made his professional debut in 1924 and became a principal comedian in the summer seasons at seaside resorts, achieving wider recognition on radio with Band Wagon from 1938. Known as 'Big‐hearted Arthur', his catchphrase was 'I thank you!'. Askey's later career included regular television appearances and a number of film roles. His birthplace was Liverpool.
Aspinall, John Audley Frederick (1851–1937) English mechanical engineer. While general manager and chief mechanical engineer of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway 1899–1919, he designed many types of locomotive and completed one of the first main line railway electrification schemes in Great Britain, from Liverpool to Southport (1904). Aspinall was born in Liverpool, and was originally employed on the railways as a locomotive fireman.
Page28 Asquith, Herbert Henry (1852–1928) (1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith) British Liberal politician, prime minister 1908–16. As chancellor of the Exchequer, he introduced old‐age pensions in 1908. He limited the powers of the House of Lords and attempted to give Ireland home rule. Herbert Asquith British Liberal politician and prime minister 'It is fitting that we should have buried the Unknown Prime Minister by the side of the Unknown Soldier.' [Remark attributed to Asquith after Law's funeral in Westminster Abbey, quoted in Robert Skidelsky Oswald Mosley ch. 27] Herbert Asquith British Liberal politician and prime minister 'One to mislead the public, another to mislead the Cabinet, and the third to mislead itself.' [Remark quoted in Alistair Horne Price of Glory on the War Office's sets of figures.] Herbert Asquith British Liberal politician and prime minister 'Youth would be an ideal state if it came a little later in life.' [The Observer 15 April 1923] Margot Asquith Second wife of Herbert Asquith 'He can't see a belt without hitting below it.' [On Lloyd George, quoted in Listener 11 June 1953]
Page29 Margot Asquith Second wife of Herbert Asquith 'Lord Birkenhead is very clever but sometimes his brains go to his head.' [Listener 11 June 1953]
Association, the (or National Association for King William) league formed by Parliament in 1696 to protect William III against 'popish plots', as a result of an assassination plot against him.
Astley, Jacob (1579–1652) English Royalist commander in the Civil War. He took part in several Civil War battles, including those of Edgehill and Naseby.
Astley, Philip (1742–1814) English equestrian and theatre impresario who was the first to introduce the circus as a form of entertainment. Celebrated by many as the best horse‐tamer of his day, his original circus of 1798, 'Astley's Amphitheatre', which stood near Westminster Bridge in London, appeared in Charles Dickens's novel The Old Curiosity Shop (1840).
Astor Prominent US and British family. John Jacob Astor (1763–1848) emigrated from Germany to the USA in 1884, and became a millionaire. His great‐grandson Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor (1879–1952), was a British politician, and served as Conservative member of Parliament for Plymouth from 1910 to 1919, when he succeeded to the peerage. His US‐born wife Nancy Witcher Langhorne, Lady Astor (1879–1964), was the first woman member of Parliament to take a seat in the House of Commons, when she succeeded her husband in the constituency of Plymouth in November 1919. She remained in parliament until 1945, as an active champion of women's rights, educational issues, and temperance. William Backhouse Astor (1792–1875) was known as the 'landlord of New York'. John Jacob Astor's grandson William Waldorf Astor (1848– 1919), was a US diplomat and writer. In 1893 he bought the Pall Mall Gazette, and founded the Pall Mall Magazine. He became naturalized British in 1899. Nancy Astor US‐born British politician 'I married beneath me, all women do.' [Dictionary of National Biography 1961–1970] Nancy Astor US‐born British politician 'One reason why I don't drink is because I wish to know when I am having a good time.' [Christian Herald June 1960]
Page30 Astor, Nancy (1879–1964) (born Nancy Witcher Langhorne) US‐born British Conservative politician, the first woman member to sit in the House of Commons. After marrying into the wealthy Anglo‐American Astor family, Nancy Astor entered Parliament in 1919. She was a keen advocate of women's rights, social reform, and temperance movements. She wrote an early biography My Two Countries (1923). Nancy Astor was born into a prosperous family in Danville, Virginia, and married Waldorf Astor in 1906. When her husband became the 2nd Viscount Astor of Cliveden in 1919, she succeeded him in the Commons as the member for the Plymouth constituency. Although she was the first sitting British woman member of Parliament, she was not the first to be elected (see Constance Markievicz). She was re‐elected in every general election up to 1945, when she retired from Parliament.
Astor, Waldorf, 2nd Viscount Astor of Cliveden (1879–1952) British politician and newspaper proprietor. Astor was Conservative and Unionist MP for Plymouth 1910–19, when he was raised to the peerage. During his political career, he held several junior ministerial posts.
atheling Anglo‐Saxon title of nobility. It was confined in use by the 8th century to male members of the royal family; that is, kings, and brothers and sons of kings.
Athelney, Isle of area of firm ground in marshland near Taunton in Somerset, England, the headquarters of King Alfred the Great in 878, when he was in hiding from the Danes. The legend of his burning the cakes is set here.
Athelstan (895–939) King of England 924–39. The son of Edward the Elder, Athelstan brought about English unity by ruling both Mercia and Wessex. He defeated an invasion by Scots, Irish, and the men of Strathclyde at Brunanburh in 937. He overcame the Scandinavian kingdom based in York and increased English power on the Welsh and Scottish borders.
Athlone, Alexander (Augustus Frederick William Alfred George) (1874–1957) (Prince of Teck, 1st Earl of Athlone) British administrator. He served in Matabeleland (now part of Zimbabwe) 1896 and in the South African War 1898–1900. He was governor general of South Africa 1923–31, and of Canada 1940–46.
Atkins, Anna (1799–1871) (born Anna Children) English photographer and illustrator. A specialist in scientific illustration, her books of original cyanotype (blueprint) illustrations of plants are particularly remarkable, the first being British Algae: Cyanotype Impressions (12 parts, 1843–53). She pioneered the use of photographic illustration as part of an extensive scientific study of the natural world. Born in Tonbridge, Atkins was the daughter of the scientist John George Children who had an early interest in the processes of photography, and was also a friend of John Herschel, the originator of the cyanotype process. Her book containing
Page31 photographic illustration pre‐dates the Pencil of Nature (1844–46) by photographer William Henry Fox Talbot, which was the first commercially produced book illustrated in this manner.
Atlantic triangle 18th‐century trade route. Goods were exported from Britain to Africa where they were traded for slaves, who were then shipped to either Spanish colonies in South America, or British colonies in North America; in return, staple goods such as cotton were sent to Europe.
Atrebates Belgic tribe which settled in southeast England about 80 BC and predominated in that area prior to the arrival of the Romans. They maintained contact with their continental counterparts so that in 55 BC Julius Caesar was still able to use a continental Belgic chieftain as an intermediary with those who had settled in England. They later came under pressure from another tribe, the Catuvellauni, which made them more amenable to the Roman invasion in AD 43 and they were later recognized by the Romans as a tribal corporation or civitas. They settled principally south of the River Thames to the west of Kent and their main settlements were at Silchester (the capital), Winchester, and Chichester where a variety of coins have been found.
ATS see auxiliary territorial service.
attainder, bill of legislative device that allowed the English Parliament to declare guilt and impose a punishment on an individual without bringing the matter before the courts. Such bills were used intermittently from the Wars of the Roses until 1798. The guilty party was deemed to be 'tainted' and so could neither inherit property nor bequeath it to an heir. Some acts of attainder were also passed by US colonial legislators during the American Revolution to deal with 'loyalists' who continued to support the English crown; these acts were later expressly forbidden by the US constitution.
Atterbury, Francis (1662–1732) English Anglican cleric and Jacobite politician. He enjoyed royal patronage and was made bishop of Rochester 1713. However, his Jacobite sympathies prevented his further rise, and in 1722 he was imprisoned in the Tower of London and subsequently banished. Atterbury was ordained priest 1687. He swore allegiance to William III after the revolution of 1688, and became royal chaplain. In 1701 he was made archdeacon, and during the reign of Queen Anne he received rapid promotion, becoming dean of Christ Church 1712, bishop of Rochester and dean of Westminster 1713. In exile from 1722, he entered the service of James Edward Stuart, t he Old Pretender, and died in France.
Attlee, Clement (Richard) (1883–1967) (1st Earl Attlee) British Labour politician. In the coalition government during World War II he was Lord Privy Seal 1940–42, dominions secretary 1942–43, and Lord President of the Council 1943–45, as well as deputy prime minister from 1942. As prime minister 1945–51 he introduced a sweeping programme of nationalization and a whole new system of social services.
Page32 Clement Attlee British Labour politician 'Democracy means government by discussion, but it is only effective if you can stop people talking.' [Speech at Oxford 14 June 1957] Clement Attlee British Labour politician 'I must remind the Right Honourable Gentleman that a monologue is not a decision.' [Remark to Winston Churchill, quoted in F Williams Prime Minister Remembers] Clement Attlee British Labour politician 'I should be a sad subject for any publicity expert. I have none of the qualities which create publicity.' [Quoted in Harold Nicolson Diary 14 January 1949] Clement Attlee British Labour politician 'I think the British have the distinction above all other nations of being able to put new wine into old bottles without bursting them.' [Hansard 24 October 1950]
Attwood, Thomas (1783–1856) British Chartist politician. He founded the Birmingham Political Union 1830 and was member of parliament for Birmingham 1832–39. He presented the first Chartist Petition to parliament July 1839 which was rejected, leading to riots across the country. A banker by profession, he favoured the introduction of paper money and the easier availability of credit.
Auckland, George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland (1784–1849) British Tory politician after whom Auckland, New Zealand, is named. He became a member of Parliament in 1810, and was governor general of India
Page33 1835–41.
Audley, Thomas (1488–1544) (Baron Audley of Walden) Lord Chancellor of England from 1533. In 1529 he became Speaker of the House of Commons. He supported the annulment of Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon; presided at the trials of Thomas More and John Fisher; passed judgement on the king's discarded wives Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard; managed the conviction of Thomas Cromwell; and effected the dissolution of Henry VIII's marriage with Anne of Cleves.
Aughrim, Battle of on 12 July 1691, a clash between the armies of James II under the Irish general St Ruth (who was killed), and those of William III under Gen Ginkell (later Earl of Athlone). The battle, won by the Williamite forces, was fought on a ridge near what is now Aughrim, a small village in County Galway, Republic of Ireland, 8 km/5 mi southwest of Ballinasloe.
Augmentation, Court of in English history, a court set up by Henry VIII in 1536 and dissolved in 1554. Its object was to manage the revenues and possessions of all monasteries under £200 a year, which by a previous act had been given to the king, and to determine lawsuits relating to these.
Auld Alliance intermittent alliance between Scotland and France that lasted from the end of the 13th century until 1560, when Protestantism displaced Catholicism as the dominant faith in Scotland.
Aungerville, Richard (1287–1345) (also known as Richard de Bury) English politician, cleric, and writer. In 1333 he became bishop of Durham. He was Lord Chancellor 1334–35 and lord treasurer 1336. He used his office as a minister of state to further his collection of books, rescuing manuscripts from destruction in monastic libraries. His book Philobiblon/The Love of Books was completed 1344.
auxiliary territorial service British Army unit of non‐combatant women auxiliaries in World War II, formed in 1939. The ATS provided cooks, clerks, radar operators, searchlight operators, and undertook other light non‐combat duties.
Avebury Europe's largest stone circle (diameter 412 m/1,350 ft), in Wiltshire, England. This megalithic henge monument is thought to be part of a ritual complex, and contains 650 massive blocks of stone arranged in circles and avenues. It was probably constructed around 3,500 years ago, and is linked with nearby Silbury Hill. The henge, an earthen bank and interior ditch with entrances on opposite sides, originally rose 15 m/49 ft above the bottom of the ditch. This earthwork and an outer ring of stones surround the inner circles. The stones vary in size from 1.5 m/5 ft to 5.5 m/18 ft high and 1 m/3 ft to 3.65 m/12 ft broad. They were erected by a late Neolithic or early Bronze Age culture. The remains that can be seen today may cover an earlier site – as may be the case at a number of prehistoric sites.
Page34 Avebury, John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury (1834–1913) British banker. A Liberal (from 1886 Liberal Unionist) member of Parliament 1870–1900, he was responsible for the Bank Holidays Act 1871 introducing statutory public holidays. John Lubbock Avebury English politician 'We profit little by books we do not enjoy.' [Sir John Lubbock Pleasures of Life ch. 5]
Awdry, W(ilbert) V(ere) (1911–1997) English author and Church of England clergyman. His railway stories for young people, especially those featuring 'Thomas the Tank Engine', delighted generations of children. The first Thomas book, The Three Railway Engines, appeared in 1945, and Thomas, the Tank Engine a year later. Over 25 books followed, each based on a real experience, until Tramway Engines appeared in 1972. After this date Awdry's son, Christopher, succeeded to the authorship. Awdry was born in Ampfield, Hampshire.
axe factories neolithic and later (c. 3500–1400 BC) sites of volcanic rock where axe‐heads were shaped. Some 550 axe factories have been identified in the Lake District of Cumbria, and it is thought that scree at Pike O'Stickle in the Langdales represents the debris from as many as 75,000 stone axe‐heads. Elsewhere, axe factories have been identified in the Lleyn Peninsula in Wales and in Cornwall. They are rare in southern and eastern England, where axe‐heads were made chiefly from flint.
Aylmer, Felix Edward (1889–1979) (born Felix Aylmer‐Jones) English actor. Although termed a 'character actor', his range was extensive, whether typifying the folly of age as Polonius in Lawrence Olivier's Hamlet or the wisdom of experience as Sir Patrick Cullen in Anthony Asquith's The Doctor's Dilemma. He was president of British Actors' Equity 1949–69. Aylmer was born into a military family and educated at Magdalen College School and Exeter College, Oxford. He debuted at the Coliseum in London with actor and theatre manager Seymour Hicks in 1911, and subsequently joined the Birmingham Repertory Theatre. After service in World War I, he enjoyed a series of steady successes on stage and screen. He was also a keen Dickens scholar, publishing Dickens Incognito (1959) and The Drood Case (1964).
Aymer de Valence (died 1260) French cleric. He was a half‐brother of the English king Henry III, who obtained for him the position of bishop of Winchester. He repudiated the barons' constitution at the Parliament of Oxford in 1258, and was forced to leave the country.
Page35 Aymer de Valence (c. 1265–1324) English politician. He was appointed guardian of Scotland 1305 by Edward I; he defeated the Scots that year at Methven, but was defeated by Robert Bruce (see Robert I) at Loudon Hill in 1307. In 1314 he was made lieutenant of Scotland, and fought at the Battle of Bannockburn.
Ayres, John (lived 17th century) English calligrapher. He ran a writing school in the City of London. He published A Tutor to Penmanship, or the Writing Master: a Copy Book showing all the Variety of Penmanship and Clerkship, as now practised in England 1698.
Ayscough, William (died 1450) English cleric, Bishop of Salisbury 1438–50. Ayscough enjoyed great influence at the court of Henry VI, and became the king's confessor. After celebrating mass at Edington, he was seized by the congregation and beaten to death.
Ayscue, George (died 1671) English admiral of the Commonwealth period. He had been knighted by Charles I, but became a Parliamentarian and commanded the fleet in the Irish Sea 1649, being then appointed admiral. In 1651 he was sent by Oliver Cromwell to Barbados to reduce the Royalists to subjection.
B Babington, Anthony (1561–1586) English traitor. He was the chief promoter of a plot to assassinate Elizabeth I and replace her with Mary Queen of Scots. The plot was discovered by the intelligence chief Francis Walsingham, and Babington was arrested, tried, and executed. The discovery of the plot also led to Mary's own execution. Anthony Babington English traitor 'The murder of the Queen has been represented to me as a deed lawful and meritorious. I die a firm Catholic.' [Last words before execution in 1586 for attempting to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I]
Back, George (1796–1878) English Arctic explorer. He was involved with John Franklin in three polar expeditions 1818–27. In 1833 he commanded in the expedition organized in search of John Ross, during which he discovered Artillery Lake and the Great Fish (now Back) River. In 1836 and 1837 he continued his North American Arctic explorations. He was made admiral 1857.
Back to Basics phrase used by British prime minister John Major during his keynote address to the Conservative Party conference in October 1993, in which he argued for a return to 'traditional British values'; it was subsequently adopted as a slogan by the Conservative Party, some members of which emphasized the morality aspect. In the
Page36 following months, media revelations of sexual indiscretions by Conservative politicians and corrupt practices by Conservative‐run councils and government departments caused deep embarrassment to the party. Major and his senior colleagues attempted to distance themselves from the moral aspect, insisting that it related merely to traditional Conservative policies and values, such as law and order. Despite this, there remained obvious confusion among both the party and the electorate.
Backwell, Edward (died c. 1683) London goldsmith and banker, one of the founders of the system of banknotes. He had financial dealings with Oliver Cromwell, Charles II, and most of the nobility of his day, and with the East India Company and several leading city firms. He was employed on many secret missions between Charles II and Louis XIV of France.
Bacon, Francis (1561–1626) (1st Baron Verulam and Viscount St Albans) English philosopher, politician, and writer, a founder of modern scientific research. His works include Essays (1597, revised and augmented 1612 and 1625), characterized by pith and brevity; The Advancement of Learning (1605), a seminal work discussing scientific method; Novum Organum (1620), in which he redefined the task of natural science, seeing it as a means of empirical discovery and a method of increasing human power over nature; and The New Atlantis (1626), describing a utopian state in which scientific knowledge is systematically sought and exploited. He was briefly Lord Chancellor in 1618 but lost his post through corruption. Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'A crowd is not company, and faces are but a gallery of pictures, and talk but a tinkling cymbal, where there is no love.' [Essays, 'Of Friendship'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'A healthy body is the guest chamber of the soul, a sick, its prison.' [Augmentis Scientiarum, 'Valetudo'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'A little philosophy inclineth man's mind to atheism, but depth in philosophy bringeth men's minds about to religion.'
Page37 [Essays, 'Atheism' 1597] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'A man must make his opportunity, as oft as find it.' [Advancement of Learning bk II] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'A mixture of a lie doth ever add pleasure.' [Essays, 'Of Truth'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'All rising to great place is by a winding stair.' [Essays, 'Of Great Place'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Antiquities are history defaced, or some remnants of history which have casually escaped the shipwreck of time.' [Advancement of Learning bk II] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Books must follow sciences, and not sciences books.'
Page38 [Proposition Touching Amendment of Laws] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Children sweeten labours, but they make misfortunes more bitter.' [Essays, 'Of Parents and Children'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Envy never makes holiday.' [De Augmentis Scientiarum] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Fame is like a river, that beareth up things light and swollen, and drowns things weighty and solid.' [Essays, 'Of Praise'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'God Almighty first planted a garden; and, indeed, it is the purest of human pleasures.' [Essays, 'Of Gardens'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'He that hath wife and children hath given hostages to fortune.'
Page39 [Essays, 'Of Marriage and the Single Life'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'He was no fit counsellor to make affairs better, yet he was fit to stop them from getting worse.' [On Robert Cecil. Quoted in David Cecil, The Cecils of Hatfield House] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'He was reputed one of the wise men, that made answer to the question, when a man should marry? A young man not yet, an elder man not at all.' [Essays, 'Of Marriage and the Single Life'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Hope is a good breakfast, but it is a bad supper.' [Apothegms 36] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'I do not believe that any man fears to be dead, but only the stroke of death.' [Essays, 'Of Death'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'I have taken all knowledge to be my province.'
Page40 [Letter to Lord Burleigh 1592] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'If a man be gracious and courteous to strangers, it shows he is a citizen of the world.' [Essays, 'Goodness, and Goodness of Nature'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'If a man will begin with certainties, he shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties.' [Advancement of Learning bk I] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'It is a reverend thing to see an ancient castle or building not in decay.' [Essays, 'Of Nobility'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Love can find entrance, not only into an open heart, but also into a heart well fortified, if watch be not well kept.' [Essays, 'Of Love'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Man seeketh in society comfort, use, and protection.'
Page41 [Advancement of Learning bk II] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Men fear death as children fear to go in the dark.' [Essays, 'Of Death'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state, servants of fame, and servants of business.' [Essays, 'Of Great Place'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Money is like muck, not good except it be spread.' [Essays, 'Of Seditions and Troubles'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Natura non nisi parendo vincitur. Nature, to be commanded, must be obeyed.' [Novum Organum 1620 Aphorism 43] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist
Page42 'Nothing doth more hurt in a state than that cunning men pass for wise.' [Essays, 'Of Cunning'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Nuptial love maketh mankind; friendly love perfecteth it; but wanton love corrupteth and embaseth it.' [Essays, 'Of Love'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Opportunity makes a thief.' [Letter to the Earl of Essex 1598] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Prosperity is not without many fears and distastes; and adversity is not without comforts and hopes.' [Essays, 'Of Adversity'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man and writing an exact man.' [Essays, 'Of Studies'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist
Page43 'Revenge is a kind of wild justice.' [Essays, 'Of Revenge'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Riches are for spending.' [Essays, 'Of Expense'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Silence is the virtue of fools.' [De Augmentis Scientiarum] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.' [Essays, 'Of Studies'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Studies serve for delight, for ornament, and for ability.' [Essays, 'Of Studies'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist
Page44 'Suspicions amongst thoughts are like bats amongst birds, they ever fly by twilight.' [Essays, 'Of Suspicion'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'The remedy is worse than the disease.' [Essays, 'Of Seditions and Troubles'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'There is a superstition in avoiding superstition.' [Essays, 'Of Superstition'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'There is little friendship in the world, and least of all between equals.' [Essays, 'Of Followers and Friends'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'There is nothing makes a man suspect much, more than to know little.' [Essays, 'Of Suspicion'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist
Page45 'They are ill discoverers that think there is no land, when they can see nothing but sea.' [Advancement of Learning bk II] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Time, which is the author of authors.' [Advancement of Learning bk I] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Truth comes out of error more easily than out of confusion.' [Quoted in R L Weber, A Random Walk in Science] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'Virtue is like a rich stone, best plain set.' [Essays, 'Of Beauty'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist 'What is truth? said jesting Pilate; and would not stay for an answer.' [Essays, 'Of Truth'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist
Page46 'Wives are young men's mistresses, companions for middle age, and old men's nurses.' [Essays, 'Of Marriage and the Single Life'] Francis Bacon English politician, philosopher, and essayist '... it was ordained that the winding ivy of a Plantagenet should kill the true tree itself.' [Referring to the execution of Perkin Warbeck. The Life of Henry VII] Izaak Walton English author 'The great Secretary of Nature and all learning, Sir Francis Bacon.' [Life of Herbert]
Bacon, Nicholas (1509–1579) English politician. After the dissolution of the monasteries 1539, he received a large share of the forfeited estates from Henry VIII. On the accession of Elizabeth I in 1558 he became a privy councillor and keeper of the Great Seal and played a considerable part in shaping government policy.
Baddeley, Sophia (1745–1786) (born Sophia Snow) English actor and singer. She played Ophelia at Drury Lane in 1765, and was a noted singer but squandered her money and became addicted to laudanum. She escaped her creditors by fleeing to Edinburgh, where she continued to perform until her death. Baddeley is believed to have been born in London. She eloped in 1763 with the actor Robert Baddeley (1732–1794), but the marriage was brief.
Baedeker raids series of German air raids directed at British provincial towns and cities April–Oct 1942. They were so named because the targets were all places of cultural interest which appeared to have been selected from Baedeker's Guide to Britain.
Bagehot, Walter (1826–1877) British writer and economist. His English Constitution published in 1867, a classic analysis of the British political system, is still a standard
Page47 work. Walter Bagehot English writer and economist 'No man has come so near our definition of a constitutional statesman – the powers of a first‐rate man and the creed of a second‐rate man.' [Writing about Robert Peel Historical Essays] Walter Bagehot English writer and economist 'One of the greatest pains to human nature is the pain of a new idea.' [Physics and Politics] Walter Bagehot English writer and economist 'Royalty is a government in which the attention of the nation is concentrated on one person doing interesting actions. A Republic is a government in which that attention is divided between many, who are all doing uninteresting actions.' [The English Constitution ch. 2] Walter Bagehot English writer and economist 'The most melancholy of human reflections, perhaps, is that, on the whole, it is a question whether the benevolence of mankind does most good or harm.' [Physics and Politics] Walter Bagehot English jurist 'Throughout the greater part of his life George III was a kind of consecrated obstruction.' [The English Constitution]
Page48
Walter Bagehot English writer and economist 'Women – one half of the human race at least – care fifty times more for a marriage than a ministry.' [English Constitution, 'The Monarchy']
Bagimond's Roll records of Catholic Church property in Scotland, compiled by Bagimond or Boiamund di Vicci, or Vitia, who was sent by Pope Gregory X in 1274 to assess the church revenues of Scotland for the purpose of raising a crusading fund.
Page49 Blunkett
(Image © Research Machines plc)
Page50 Born in Sheffield in 1947, English Labour politician David Blunkett was educated at Sheffield University. He first became a member of Parliament in 1987, and almost immediately became Opposition Spokesman on the Environment (Local Government). A leading figure in Tony Blair's New Labour, Blunkett became Home Secretary in the post‐election Cabinet reshuffle of 2001.
Bagot, Charles (1781–1843) British diplomat. As minister to Washington, he negotiated the Rush–Bagot Convention 1817 between Britain and the USA, limiting the armaments of each country on the Great Lakes. Bagot was ambassador at St Petersburg 1825 when the agreement with Russia was signed, defining the northwestern boundary of British North America. He was governor general of Canada 1842–43.
Baillie, Robert (1599–1662) Scottish Presbyterian cleric. He was one of the commissioners appointed to prepare charges 1640 against Archbishop Laud, whose political and religious attitudes helped precipitate the English Civil War. Baillie had great influence on Scottish political affairs, playing a considerable part in rousing Scottish opposition to Charles I, and, later, in urging the repudiation of Oliver Cromwell and the restoration of Charles II.
Baillie, Robert, of Jerviswood (c. 1634–1684) Scottish political activist. From 1676 he was involved in political and religious disaffection in Scotland and, although he denied involvement in the Rye House Plot, he was tried for complicity, condemned to death, and hanged at Edinburgh.
Baird, David (1757–1829) British general during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. In 1801 he commanded an expedition to Egypt for the expulsion of the French. He led an army to recapture the Cape of Good Hope, South Africa, from the Dutch settlers 1806, and served at the siege of Copenhagen, Denmark, 1807. In 1808 he was sent to Corunna, Spain, to help John Moore with a reinforcement of 10,000 troops. In 1820 he was appointed commander‐in‐chief in Ireland, but was not successful as an administrator, and was removed from office 1821.
Baker, Henry (1698–1774) English scientist. He wrote two popular instructional books on the use of the microscope in natural history, and made observations on the crystallization of salts in 1744. He also introduced the rhubarb plant to England.
Bakewell, Robert (1725–1795) British pioneer improver of farm livestock. From his home in Leicestershire, England, he developed the Dishley or New Leicester breed of sheep and worked on raising the beef‐producing qualities of Longhorn cattle.
Page51 Baldwin, Stanley (1867–1947) (1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley) British Conservative politician, prime minister 1923–24, 1924–29, and 1935–37. He weathered the general strike of 1926, secured complete adult suffrage in 1928, and handled the abdication crisis of Edward VIII in 1936, but failed to prepare Britain for World War II. Stanley Baldwin British politician and prime minister ''Safety first' does not mean a smug self‐satisfaction with everything as it is. It is a warning to all persons who are going to cross a road in dangerous circumstances.' [The Times 21 May 1929] Stanley Baldwin British politician and prime minister 'A platitude is simply a truth repeated until people get tired of hearing it.' [Hansard 29 May 1924] Stanley Baldwin British politician and prime minister 'I think it is well also for the man in the street to realize that there is no power on earth that can protect him from being bombed. Whatever people may tell him, the bomber will always get through. The only defence is in offence, which means that you have to kill more women and children more quickly than the enemy if you want to save yourselves.' [Hansard 10 November 1932] Stanley Baldwin British politician and prime minister 'The gift of rhetoric has been responsible for more bloodshed on this earth than all the guns and explosives that were ever invented.' [The Observer 16 March 1924] Stanley Baldwin British politician and prime minister
Page52 'The intelligent are to the intelligentsia what a gentleman is to a gent.' [Quoted in G M Young Stanley Baldwin ch. 13] Stanley Baldwin British politician and prime minister 'When we speak of Empire it is in no spirit of flag‐wagging. We feel that in this great inheritance of ours, separated as it is by the seas, we have yet one home and one people.' [Speech 5 December 1924] Keith and Barnes, John Middlemas 'Baldwin believed that it was rarely possible to solve problems. The forces which created them might be diverted or weakened, and this perpetual struggle was an 'Endless Adventure'.' [Baldwin, Epilogue]
Balfour, James, of Pittendreich (c. 1525–1584) Scottish lawyer and politician, notorious for the frequency with which he changed sides. He was implicated in the murder of Cardinal Beaton, and in 1547 was sent with other conspirators to the French galleys. He was released on renouncing his Calvinism and subsequently supported the party of Mary of Guise. When Mary Queen of Scots returned to Scotland, he became one of her principal advisers. Balfour was a supporter of Bothwell and played a leading part in the assassination of Lord Darnley. When the lords rose against Bothwell, Balfour deserted the queen and as a reward he was made lord president of the Court of Session. He was briefly imprisoned for complicity in Darnley's murder, but escaped. He fled to France, where he remained until 1580, offering his services in turn to Mary and Elizabeth. He returned to Scotland to give evidence of Morton's part in Darnley's death. He himself was restored to his estates and received at court.
Balfour Declaration letter, dated 2 November 1917, from British foreign secretary A J Balfour to Lord Rothschild (chair, British Zionist Federation) stating: 'HM government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people.' It helped form the basis for the foundation of Israel in 1948.
Baliol (or Balliol), John de (c. 1249–1315) King of Scotland 1292–96. As an heir to the Scottish throne on the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway, he had the support of the English king, Edward I, against 12 other claimants. Baliol was proclaimed king, having paid homage to Edward. When English forces attacked Scotland, Baliol rebelled against England and gave up the
Page53 kingdom. Baliol was unpopular with the Scots, who dubbed him Toom Tabbard ('empty garment'). After Edward's invasion, Baliol and his three sons were sent to London and confined to the Tower for three years. Released at the request of Pope Boniface, Baliol died in France at his patrimonial estate of Ballieul. His son Edward invaded Scotland in 1332 and became king for various short periods between 1332 and 1346.
Ball, Albert (1896–1917) British fighter pilot and air ace. He was awarded the MC, DSO and Bar, and, posthumously, the Victoria Cross. At the time of his death May 1917 he had attained the rank of captain and was credited with over 40 enemy aircraft shot down.
Ball, Alexander John (1756–1809) British naval officer and administrator. He served in the Mediterranean under Horatio Nelson during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. In 1799 he was elected by the Maltese as their president and commander‐in‐chief. He proved a very popular governor of Malta. In 1805 he was promoted to rear admiral.
ballot act in Britain, legislation introduced by Gladstone's Liberal administration in 1872, providing for secret ballots in elections. The measure was opposed by landowners who would no longer be able to monitor, and hence control, the voting of their tenants. They defeated the measure when it was first presented in the Lords in 1871 but William Forster eventually secured its passage in July 1872.
Balmerino, James Elphinstone, 1st Baron (1553–1612) Scottish politician. Under James VI he was appointed judge and royal secretary. In 1599, prompted by his enthusiasm for Roman Catholicism, he sent a cordial letter from James to Pope Clement VII without the king's knowledge. James repudiated the letter, and Balmerino was imprisoned for a short time.
Balnaves, Henry, of Halhill (c. 1512–1579) One of the chief promoters of the Reformation in Scotland. In 1538 James V made him a lord of session. On the accession of Mary in 1543, Balnaves was imprisoned for six months for his aggressive Protestantism. In 1546 he joined the murderers of Cardinal Beaton in the castle of St Andrews. In the following year he was captured by the French and imprisoned at Rouen. In 1554, when the dowager queen Mary of Guise became regent of Scotland, Balnaves was released and on his return to Scotland he took an active part on the side of the lords of the congregation, and in 1563 was appointed a lord of session and was chosen as one of the commissioners to revise the Book of Discipline.
Bannockburn, Battle of battle fought on 23–24 June 1314 at Bannockburn, Scotland, between Robert (I) the Bruce, King of Scotland, and Edward II of England. The defeat of the English led to the independence of Scotland. Edward II, attempting to relieve Stirling castle, led over 2,000 knights and 15,000 foot soldiers, including about 5,000 archers. Bruce had only 500 light cavalry and some 7,000 foot soldiers. He took up a defensive position behind a stream and dug pits to hamper the English cavalry. An English attack was repulsed, so Edward's forces made a night march to outflank the
Page54 obstacles. This manoeuvre was badly executed, leaving Edward's knights in boggy ground and the archers out of position in the rear. Bruce blocked the English advance with schiltrons (tightly packed formations) of pikemen, then, as the archers tried to deploy, charged with his cavalry and routed them. The English knights' charges against the Scottish schiltrons suffered heavy casualties, and 500 noblemen were taken for ransom.
barbarian conspiracy joint attack in AD 367 on Roman Britain from the north by Picts, Scots and Attacotti, and from Continental Europe by Franks and Saxons. Nectaridus, probably comes (count) of the Roman coastal defences known as the Saxon Shore, was killed in the raids. The Roman commanders in Britain, Jovinus and Severus, were unable to repel the raiders and the Emperor Valentinian sent Theodosius to restore order. He landed at Richborough in 368, marched on London, and reorganized Britain's defences. Despite his capable efforts, the attack was a great shock to Britain's defence system.
Barebones Parliament English assembly called by Oliver Cromwell to replace the Rump Parliament in July 1653. Although its members attempted to pass sensible legislation (civil marriage; registration of births, deaths, and marriages; custody of lunatics), their attempts to abolish tithes, patronage, and the court of chancery, and to codify the law, led to the resignation of the moderates and its dissolution in December 1653. The assembly consisted of 140 members selected by the army and derived its name from one of its members, Praise‐God Barbon.
Barham, Charles Middleton, 1st Baron (1726–1813) British naval officer. He joined the navy 1745 and became an admiral 1795. He was first lord of the Admiralty 1805–06. Much of Britain's naval reorganization before the Battle of Trafalgar was due to Barham's efforts.
Barnes, (Alice) Josephine (Mary Taylor) (1912–1999) English obstetrician and gynaecologist. The first woman president of the British Medical Association 1979–80, she has also held appointments at the Royal Society of Medicine, the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, and the National Association of Family Planning Doctors. As a member of national and international committees, she has worked with the Royal Commission on Medical Education 1965–68, the Committee on the Working of the Abortion Act 1971–73, and the Advertising Standards Authority 1980–93. In 1974 she was created DBE. Barnes was born in Shorlingham, Norfolk. She read physiology at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, before completing her clinical training at University College Hospital, London in 1937. After various appointments in London and Oxford, she became deputy academic head of the Obstetric Unit of University College Hospital 1947–52, and surgeon to the Marie Curie Hospital 1947–67. She has published extensively on obstetrics, gynaecology, and family planning.
Barnes, George Nicoll (1859–1940) British politician, active in Labour and trade‐union politics. He was a cabinet minister 1917–20, and a member of the Versailles peace conference after World War I. He prepared the draft proposals for the Commission on World Labour, which subsequently developed into the International Labour Office.
Page55 Barnet, Battle of in the Wars of the Roses, the defeat of Lancaster by York on 14 April 1471 in Barnet (now in northwest London).
baronage collective title for all the landed nobility of medieval England, including earls and other important tenants‐in‐chief, as well as the barons.
Barons' War civil war begun by the English barons under Simon de Montfort (the Younger), leader of a reform movement against King Henry III of England's government. Success at the Battle of Lewes in 1264 led to the king's capture, but at the Battle of Evesham in 1265 the rebellious barons were brutally massacred. The Montfortians' power base was around Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire. Marching south, Simon challenged the royalists outside Lewes in Sussex on 14 May. Despite a successful charge by Prince Edward, the royalists were routed by Simon's tactics and Henry was captured. Deserted by some of his allies, who changed sides in 1265, Simon was outmanoeuvred and drawn into a killing ground at Evesham, where he was killed, along with many other rebel barons. Montfortian castles continued to hold out until 1267. Kenilworth, surrounded by sophisticated water defences, withstood six months' intense siege until forced to surrender in December 1266.
Barons' Wars civil wars in England: 1215–17 between King John and his barons, over his failure to honour Magna Carta; 1264–67 between Henry III (and the future Edward I) and his barons (led by Simon de Montfort); 1264 14 May Battle of Lewes at which Henry III was defeated and captured; 1265 4 August Simon de Montfort was defeated by Edward at Evesham and killed.
Barrington, Jonah (c. 1760–1834) Irish lawyer and historian, best remembered for Personal Sketches of His Own Times (3 volumes, 1827– 32) containing comical historical portraits of political and legal figures. Born at Knapton in County Laois, Barrington was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He was called to the bar in 1788, became Admiralty Court judge in 1798, and was knighted in 1807. In 1830, after he was removed from office for embezzlement, he lived in exile, where he wrote The Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation (1833). He died in France, having fled there in 1815 to escape creditors.
Bart, Lionel (1930–1999) English composer and lyricist. His musical Lock Up Your Daughters (1959) ended the USA's domination of London's music theatre. Further acclaim followed with Fings Ain't Wot They Used T'be (1959), Oliver (1960), and Blitz! (1962). Bart was born in London. His first success, Lock Up Your Daughters, was based on Henry Fielding's play Rape upon Rape (1730). Maggie May, a between‐the‐wars story of a Liverpool prostitute, was staged in 1964. His Robin Hood musical, Twang! (1965), and La Strada (1969) were box‐office failures.
Page56 Barton, Elizabeth (1506–1534) (called 'the Maid of Kent' or 'the Nun of Kent') English prophet. After an illness in 1525, she began to go into trances and make prophecies against the authorities. She denounced Henry VIII's divorce and marriage to Anne Boleyn, and was hanged for treason at Tyburn. Edward Bocking, one of the monks who had been sent by Archbishop Warham to examine her, was hanged at the same time. He had become convinced that she was directly inspired by the Virgin Mary, and acted as her confessor at the Priory of St Sepulchre at Canterbury.
bastide one of the small fortified towns deliberately constructed to a rectilinear plan during the Middle Ages, especially in the second half of the 13th century under Edward I. Bastides were sited for strategic advantage as frontier posts or to consolidate a presence in hostile territory through the introduction of English traders and settlers. They were first constructed in France, where Monpazier in Dordogne (1284) is typical. Later they were introduced widely in Wales, for example at Rhuddlan, Conway, Caernarfon, Beaumaris, Criccieth and Harlech. Flint is probably the best surviving example, where a flat site lent itself to an ideal application of the principle.
Battenberg, (Mountbatten) Prince Louis Alexander (1854–1921) British admiral. A member of a British family of German extraction, Battenberg joined the Royal Navy and became an admiral. In 1914 he was First Sea Lord but was forced to retire due to anti‐German public feeling as a result of World War I.
Beachy Head, Battle of English naval defeat in the Channel 30 June 1690 by a French force sailing to London in support of a proposed Jacobite rebellion. The English army at the time under William of Orange was almost entirely occupied in Ireland where the exiled King James II was based. Taking advantage of this weakness, Louis XIV of France prepared a large fleet to attack London, raise a Jacobite rebellion in support of James II, and invade England. Despite this victory, James suffered a series of reverses and was forced to flee to France, so the proposed invasion never took place.
Beaconsfield title taken by Benjamin Disraeli, prime minister of Britain in 1868 and 1874–80.
beadle (or bedel; Anglo‐Saxon bydell'summoning officer')) British official whose function has had many variations. In Saxon England, the beadle called householders to the moot (an assembly of freemen). After the Norman Conquest the beadle was an officer both of the manor and of the church, but gradually developed into a parish constable. The university bedels, once important functionaries, now figure in official processions.
Beale, Mary (1632–1699) (born Mary Cradock) English portrait painter. A professional artist at the time of her marriage in 1651, little is known of her work before about 1670, although her husband's diaries
Page57 record some commissions, including a number for clerics. A devoted follower of the contemporary portraitist Peter Lely, she also produced copies of his work. Beale was born in Barrow, Suffolk, and was the daughter of a clergyman.
Beaton, David (1494–1546) Scottish Catholic cleric and politician. He became a cardinal in 1538 and archbishop of St Andrews in 1539. He held diplomatic posts under James V and was chancellor under Mary Queen of Scots. Beaton studied civil and canon law in France, and in 1519 was appointed resident for Scotland at the French court. He also acted as ambassador for James V to treat for a French alliance through a marriage between the Scottish king and the French princess. Beaton retained his influence at court after the death of James in 1542. He was opposed to the alliance with England and persecuted religious reformers such as George Wishart, who was condemned to the stake. In revenge, Wishart's friends murdered Beaton at St Andrews.
Beaufort, Henry (1375–1447) English politician and cleric. As chancellor of England, he supported his half‐brother Henry IV and made enormous personal loans to Henry V to finance war against France. As a guardian of Henry VI during his minority, from 1421 he was in effective control of the country until 1426. In the same year he was created a cardinal. Beaufort was the second of four illegitimate children of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and his third wife, Katharine Swynford (c. 1350– 1403). All the children were legitimized by charter of Richard II 1397. Beaufort was ordained priest, and was made bishop of Lincoln 1398 and of Winchester 1405. He had a long‐running personal feud with Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, which led to his fall from power 1426. In 1427 he was sent by the pope to Germany to lead a crusade against Hussites. He crowned Henry VI king of France in Paris 1431.
Beaufort, Margaret (1443–1509) (Countess of Richmond and Derby) English noble. She was the granddaughter of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. In 1455 she married Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, and their son became Henry VII of England. Her father was John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. After the death of Edmund she married Henry Stafford, son of the Duke of Buckingham. Her third husband, Thomas Stanley, Earl of Derby, defected from the Yorkists to the Lancastrians, aiding Henry's victory over Richard III at the battle of Bosworth 1485, which ended the Wars of the Roses.
Beaumaris town and tourist resort on the Isle of Anglesey, northwest Wales; population (1991 est) 1,600. It is situated on Beaumaris Bay, to the north of the Menai Strait, and has a large harbour. There is an annual regatta, and a music festival is held in early summer. Beaumaris Castle, one of the finest European examples of the concentric type, was founded by Edward I in 1295, and is classified by the United Nations as a World Heritage site. Other features include Beaumaris Courthouse, which was built in 1614 and renovated in the 19th century, and Beaumaris Gaol which was built in 1829; both buildings are open to the public.
Beaumont, Agnes (1652–1720) English religious autobiographer. She became a friend of the writer John Bunyan after joining his congregation at Gamlingay in 1672. Forbidden by her father to attend a meeting in 1674, she defied him and was locked out of the house for two days. Although reconciled, he died soon after, and she and Bunyan were accused of conspiring to poison him until cleared by a coroner's jury.
Page58 The story is related in her autobiography, the 'Narrative of the Persecution of Agnes Beaumont', which still survives in manuscript form and was published in a collection called An Abstract of the Gracious Dealings of God with Several Eminent Christians (1760). Her birthplace was Edworth, Bedfordshire.
Beaverbrook, (William) Max(well) Aitken (1879–1964) (1st Baron Beaverbrook) Canadian‐born British financier, proprietor and publisher of the Daily Express group of newspapers, and a UK government minister in cabinets during both world wars. He bought a majority interest in the Daily Express in 1916, founded the Sunday Express in 1918, and bought the London Evening Standard in 1923. He served in David Lloyd George's World War I cabinet and Winston Churchill's World War II cabinet. Having made a fortune in cement in Canada, he entered British politics, first in support of Andrew Bonar Law, then of Lloyd George, becoming minister of information 1918–19. In World War II he was minister of supply 1941. He received a knighthood in 1911 and was made a baronet in 1916. Beverley Baxter British politician 'Beaverbrook is so pleased to be in the Government that he is like the town tart who has finally married the Mayor!' [On Lord Beaverbrook, Quoted in Harold Nicolson, Diary, June 1940] Max Beaverbrook Canadian‐born British financier, newspaper proprietor, and politician 'He did not seem to care which way he travelled providing he was in the driver's seat. With the publication of his Private Papers in 1952, he committed suicide 25 years after his death.' [Of Earl Haig Men and Power 1956] Max Beaverbrook British financier, newspaper proprietor, and politician 'I learnt one thing from my father; and that was to hate! to hate!' [Frances Stevenson Diary 10 January 1935]
Page59 Max Beaverbrook Canadian‐born British financier, newspaper proprietor, and politician 'The Daily Express declares that Great Britain will not be involved in a European war this year or next year either.' [Daily Express 19 September 1938]
Becket, St Thomas à (1118–1170) English archbishop and politician. He was chancellor to Henry II from 1155 to 1162, when he was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. The interests of the Roman Catholic medieval church soon conflicted with those of the crown and Becket was assassinated; he was canonized (made into a saint) in 1172. Becket
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page60 The murder of Thomas à Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, depicted by the artist and chronicler Matthew Paris. After his death, Becket's tomb in Canterbury became one of the most important English pilgrimage sites of the Middle Ages. St Thomas à Becket English priest and politician 'No one shall set the sea between me and my Church. I did not come here to run away: anyone who wants me may find me.' [To the knights who came to murder him at Canterbury Cathedral December 1770. Attributed remark] Henry II King of England '... they fell upon him and killed him (I say it with sorrow). I fear the anger I had recently shown against him may have been the cause of this misdeed. I call God to witness that I am extremely disturbed, but more with anxiety about my reputation than qualms of conscience.' [Referring to the killing of Thomas à Becket, in a letter to Pope Alexander III, 1171]
Bede (c. 673–735) English theologian and historian, known as the Venerable Bede. Active in Durham and Northumbria, he wrote many scientific, theological, and historical works. His Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People) of 731 is a primary source for early English history, and was translated into the vernacular by King Alfred. Born at Monkwearmouth, Durham, Bede entered the local monastery at the age of seven, later transferring to Jarrow, where he became a priest in about 703. He devoted his life to writing and teaching; among his pupils was Egbert, archbishop of York. He was canonized in 1899. Much of our knowledge of England in the Dark Ages prior to the 8th century depends on Bede's historical works and his painstaking efforts to research and validate original sources, both documentary and oral testimony. He popularized the system of dating events from the birth of Christ. Bede English theologian and historian 'They came from three very powerful nations of the Germans: that is, from the Saxones, Angli, and Iutae.' [Referring to the Anglo‐Saxon invaders, Ecclesiastical History of the English People early 8th century]
Page61 Bede English theologian and historian '... as if, when you are sitting at dinner with your chiefs and ministers in wintertime ... a sparrow from outside flew quickly through the hall ... having come out of the winter it returns to the winter. Man's life appears like this: of what came before, and what follows, we are ignorant.' [Ecclesiastical History of the English People early 8th century]
bedel alternative spelling of beadle.
Bee, St (or St Begh or St Bega) Irish princess and religious leader. She was initiated into holy orders by her fellow countryman St Aidan, the first bishop of Lindisfarne, and founded the nunnery of St Bees in Cumberland.
Bek, Antony (died 1311) English prelate, bishop of Durham from 1283. In 1296 he took part in Edward I's expedition against Scotland, and received the Scottish king John de Baliol's submission. Clement V made him patriarch of Jerusalem in 1305, and two years later Edward II granted him the sovereignty of the Isle of Man. After his return from the Battle of Falkirk in 1298 Bek appears to have lost Edward I's favour. In 1302 he set out to Rome to lodge an appeal against Richard de Hoton, prior of Durham, without asking the king's leave; in consequence the temporalities of his see were confiscated, but he afterwards regained them.
Bekynton, Thomas (c. 1393–1465) English cleric, bishop of Bath and Wells from 1443. He was for a time secretary to Humfrey, Duke of Gloucester; he later served as a royal diplomat and compiled a collection of documents, proving the justice of English claims to the French throne. He was regarded as a potential humanist patron, being presented with copies of works by such diverse characters as Flavio Biondo and John Free.
Belknap, Robert (lived late 14th century) English jurist. He was chief justice of the Court of Common Pleas from 1374 to 1388, when he was removed for having, unwillingly, signed an affirmative to the question of Edward III: 'Whether I might by my regal power revoke that which was acted in Parliament'. In the succeeding Parliament all the judges were arrested in Westminster Hall on a charge of high treason, but Belknap escaped with his life through the intercession of the bishops.
Bell, Alexander Graham (1847–1922) Scottish‐born US scientist and inventor. He was the first person ever to transmit speech from one point to another by electrical means. This invention – the telephone – was made in 1876, when Bell transmitted speech from Paris, Ontario, to Brantford, Ontario (a distance of 13 km/8 mi). Later Bell experimented with a type of phonograph and, in aeronautics, invented the tricycle undercarriage.
Page62 Bell also invented a photophone, which used selenium crystals to apply the telephone principle to transmitting words in a beam of light. He thus achieved the first wireless transmission of speech. Alexander Graham Bell Scottish‐born US scientist 'Mr Watson, come here; I want you.' [First complete sentence spoken over the telephone in March 1876]
Bell, Andrew (1753–1832) British educationist. In 1789 he became superintendent of the Madras Male Orphan Asylum, India, founded by the East India Company for the education of the sons of military men, where he developed a system of the older boys teaching the younger ones. On his return to England he published The Madras School or Elements of Tuition (1797), explaining his system. He settled in Swanage, Dorset, and applied the system in four or five small schools in the town. Meanwhile Joseph Lancaster, a Quaker, had set up a school in 1798 in Borough Road, London, also using the monitorial system. The Church of England, viewing Lancaster's school as a threat, founded the National Society to run Anglican schools, and Lancaster and his supporters set up the rival British and Foreign Schools Society. Bell became superintendent of the National Schools, which proved the more efficient organization, and by 1833 there were 12,000 such schools.
Beloff, Max, Baron Beloff (1913–1999) British historian. From 1974 to 1979 he was principal of the University College at Buckingham, the UK's first independent institution at university level.
Benbow, John (1653–1702) English admiral. He spent his entire life in active service; as a boy he ran away to sea, and from 1689 served in the navy. Hero of several battles with France, he fought at the battles of Beachy Head 1690 and La Hogue 1692. In 1702 he attacked a French squadron off Jamaica and was wounded in the leg but remained on deck to continue the attack. He was defeated owing to lack of support from his captains, two of whom were later tried and shot for cowardice. He died of his wounds in Jamaica.
benefit of clergy immunity from lay jurisdiction granted to members of the clergy. The benefit was granted by the Constitutions of Clarendon 1164 which laid down that members of the clergy should be exempt from the jurisdiction of lay courts, except in the case of infringement of royal forest laws. They were to be handed over instead to an ecclesiastical court, where it was widely felt that they would receive more lenient treatment. By the 15th century it was sufficient to be able to read to claim benefit, as the church had a strong association with learning and literacy was taken to be sufficient proof of being a member of the clergy. Those claiming this right would normally be asked to read Psalm 51 I, the so‐called 'neck verse', and so this passage was often allegedly memorised by those
Page63 who could not in fact read. During the early Reformation, the rights to benefit were severely restricted, although it was only actually abolished 1825.
Bennett, Jill (1931–1990) English actor. She scored her first major success in Jean Anouilh's Dinner With The Family (1957), and went on to establish a considerable reputation as an elegant, sharp‐witted actor, both in classical and contemporary drama. Bennett was born in London, and made her acting debut at Stratford in 1949, and in London in 1950. She played in a number of the works of John Osborne, including Time Present (1968), West of Suez (1971), Watch It Come Down (1976), and an acclaimed title role in his production of Henrik Ibsen's classic drama Hedda Gabler in 1972.
Bentinck, Lord (William) George (Frederick Cavendish) (1802–1848) English noble and politician. In 1846 he led opposition to repeal of the Corn Laws and helped defeat Robert Peel's government. When the Conservative Party split over Free Trade, Bentinck became leader of the protectionist faction 1846–47.
Bentinck, Lord William Henry Cavendish (1774–1839) British colonial administrator, governor general of India 1828–35. He acted to suppress the Thugs (a fraternity of robbers who strangled their victims) and tried to stop the practice of suttee (the burning of a widow on her husband's funeral pyre). He also established English as the medium of instruction. As governor of Madras (now Chennai) from 1803, he introduced reforms that provoked a mutiny among the Indian soldiers (sepoys), and was recalled 1807. He became governor general of Bengal 1827 and then governor general of India the following year.
Beresford, Charles William de la Poer (1846–1919) (1st Baron) Irish naval commander and politician. A popular and flamboyant officer, he held appointments as Fourth Lord of the Admiralty (1886–88) and commander of the Mediterranean Fleet (1905–07) and Channel Fleet (1907– 09). His service career came to an end after bitter public disagreements with the First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir John Fisher, over naval policy and reforms. Beresford was born in Philipstown, County Offally, the son of the 4th Marquis of Waterford. He joined the navy in 1859, and was given his first command in 1882 for distinguished service at the bombardment of Alexandria, which also earned him great public acclaim and the affectionate nickname 'Charlie B'. He subsequently served in the Nile expedition of 1884. His political career began in 1874, when he was elected as the Conservative MP for Waterford; he later represented York and Portsmouth in Parliament.
Berkeley, William (1606–1677) British colonial administrator in North America. He was governor of the colony of Virginia 1641–77 but was removed from office for his brutal repression of Bacon's Rebellion 1676. When first appointed governor of Virginia, Berkeley proved himself to be an able administrator, but was drawn into English politics and neglected the affairs of his colony. Siding with the Royalists during the English Civil War, he was removed from
Page64 the governorship by Oliver Cromwell 1652. He was reappointed 1660 by Charles II after the Restoration of the monarchy. However, growing opposition to him in the colony culminated in the rebellion.
Bermingham Anglo‐Norman family granted Irish lands in Offaly by Richard de Clare (Strongbow), soon after his arrival in Ireland in 1170. They took part in the conquest of Connacht, the Offaly branch being known as the de Berminghams of Tethmoy, while those of Connacht being based in Athenry. Like many such families, the de Berminghams were ultimately absorbed into Gaelic society, some adopting the name Mac Fheorais (son of Piers), now Corish. Despite their Gaelicization, they are best remembered for the massacre of 30 of the O'Connors in 1305, carried out by Piers (Peter) de Bermingham of Tethmoy (died 1308) while they feasted at his castle in Carbury; the deed was applauded by the English and lamented by their Irish counterparts.
Berry, Edward (1768–1831) British naval officer. During the Revolutionary Wars against France, he was captain of Horatio Nelson's flagship in 1798 at the Battle of Aboukir Bay, of which he later wrote an account. Berry was taken prisoner by the French while carrying Nelson's dispatches home on the Leander. He also took part in the Battle of Trafalgar 1805.
Berwick, James Fitzjames, 1st Duke of Berwick (1670–1734) French marshal, illegitimate son of the Duke of York (afterwards James II of England) and Arabella Churchill (1648–1730), sister of the great duke of Marlborough, his enemy in battle. He was made duke of Berwick in 1687. After the revolution of 1688 he served under his father in Ireland, joined the French army, fought against William III and Marlborough, and in 1707 defeated the English at Almansa in Spain. He was killed at the siege of Philippsburg. Created Duke 1687.
Berwick, treaties of three treaties between the English and the Scots signed at Berwick, on the border of the two countries. In the first treaty, made in January 1560, Queen Elizabeth I of England and the Calvinist Lords of the Congregation in Scotland agreed to an alliance, and the expulsion from Scotland of French troops who were supporting the Catholic regent, Mary of Guise, mother of Mary Queen of Scots. In the second treaty, made in July 1586, James VI of Scotland signed a treaty with Elizabeth by which, in return for an English pension of £4,000, both sides agreed to maintain their established religions, and cooperate in case of an invasion of Britain by Catholic forces. The third treaty, made in June 1639 ended the first Bishops' War. King Charles I of England agreed with the Scottish rebels that a General Assembly of the Scottish Church, the Kirk, would determine religious matters and that a parliament would be summoned in Edinburgh, and in return they stood down their forces.
Bessemer, Henry (1813–1898) English engineer and inventor who developed a method of converting molten pig iron into steel (the Bessemer process) in 1856. Knighted 1879.
Bevan, Aneurin (Nye) (1897–1960) British Labour politician. Son of a Welsh miner, and himself a miner at 13, he was member of Parliament for Ebbw Vale 1929–60. As minister of health 1945–51, he
Page65 inaugurated the National Health Service (NHS); he was minister of labour from January to April 1951, when he resigned (with Harold Wilson) on the introduction of NHS charges and led a Bevanite faction against the government. In 1956 he became chief Labour spokesperson on foreign affairs, and deputy leader of the Labour party in 1959. He was an outstanding speaker. Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'A desiccated calculating machine.' [On Hugh Gaitskell. Quoted in W T Rodgers, Hugh Gaitskell] Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'Damn it all, you can't have the crown of thorns and the thirty pieces of silver.' [Michael Foot Aneurin Bevan] Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'Freedom is the by‐product of economic surplus.' [Quoted in Foot Aneurin Bevan vol. 1, ch. 3] Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'I read the newspapers avidly. It is my one form of continuous fiction.' [The Observer April 1960] Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician
Page66 'If we complain about the tune, there is no reason to attack the monkey when the organ grinder is present.' [Hansard 16 May 1957] Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'Listening to a speech by Chamberlain is like paying a visit to Woolworths; everything in its place and nothing above sixpence.' [On Neville Chamberlain, in The Tribune, 1937] Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'This island is made mainly of coal and surrounded by fish. Only an organizing genius could produce a shortage of coal and fish at the same time.' [Speech at Blackpool 18 May 1945] Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'We have been the dreamers, we have been the sufferers, now we are the builders ... We want to complete political extinction of the Tory Party and twenty‐five years of Labour government. We cannot do in five years what requires to be done.' [Speech at Labour Party Conference, 1945, two months before coming to power in a landslide victory] Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'We know what happens to people who stay in the middle of the road. They get run down.' [The Observer 6 December 1953] Constance Cummings US actor
Page67 'He was like a fire in a room on a cold winter's day.' [On Aneurin Bevan. Quoted in M Foot, Aneurin Bevan]
Beveridge, William Henry (1879–1963) (1st Baron Beveridge) British economist. A civil servant, he acted as Lloyd George's lieutenant in the social legislation of the Liberal government before World War I. His Report on Social Insurance and Allied Services (1942), known as the Beveridge Report, formed the basis of the welfare state in Britain. Beveridge was born in Rangpur, Bengal, and was educated at Charterhouse and Oxford University. He was leader writer on the Morning Post before entering the Board of Trade in 1908 and was director of labour exchanges from 1909 to 1916. From 1919 to 1937 he was director of the London School of Economics. He became a Liberal MP in 1944 but was defeated in 1945. He was created a baron in 1946. William Beveridge British economist 'Scratch a pessimist, and you find often a defender of privilege.' [The Observer 17 December 1943] William Beveridge British economist 'Want is one of only five giants on the road of reconstruction. The others are disease, ignorance, squalor, and idleness.' ['Social Insurance and Allied Services' (1942)]
Beveridge Report, the in Britain, popular name of Social Insurance and Allied Services, a report written by William Beveridge in 1942 that formed the basis for the social‐reform legislation of the Labour government of 1945–50. Also known as the Report on Social Security, it identified five 'giants': idleness, ignorance, disease, squalor, and want. It proposed a scheme of social insurance from 'the cradle to the grave', and recommended a national health service, social insurance and assistance, family allowances, and full‐employment policies.
Bevin, Ernest (1881–1951) British Labour politician. Chief creator of the Transport and General Workers' Union, he was its general secretary 1921–40. He served as minister of labour and national service 1940–45 in Winston Churchill's wartime coalition government, and organized the 'Bevin boys', chosen by ballot to work in
Page68 the coalmines as war service. As foreign secretary in the Labour government 1945–51, he played a leading part in the creation of NATO. Ernest Bevin British Labour politician 'My [foreign] policy is to be able to take a ticket at Victoria Station and go anywhere I damn well please.' [The Spectator April 1951]
Bianconi, Charles (Carlo) (1786–1875) Irish transport entrepreneur. Born in Lombardy, Italy, he came to Ireland as a travelling salesman specializing in prints and small artworks. On opening a craft shop in Carrick‐on‐Suir, County Tipperary, in 1806, he became aware of the acute transportation difficulties of the region and in 1815 initiated his own horse‐drawn carriage service, carrying passengers and goods around Tipperary. Rising demand enabled him to expand both the extent of his operation and the size of his carriages; by the mid‐1840s a large fleet of 'Bians' covered a road network of over 5,000 km/3,000 mi. His coaches remained popular until challenged by the expansion of the railway system in the later 19th century.
Biggs, Ronald (1929–) English criminal, member of the gang responsible for the robbery of the London–Glasgow mail train in the UK on 8 August 1963. He was sentenced to 30 years imprisonment but escaped from Wandsworth prison, London, in July 1965 and fled, first to Australia, and later to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Unable to be extradited under Brazilian law, he lived there until May 2001, when he returned voluntarily to the UK, and was arrested on his arrival. In what was known as the 'Great Train Robbery', the gang stole more than £2.5 million in used banknotes. Most of the gang were caught and imprisoned for long terms, but Biggs's escape and flight earned him iconic status.
Billington‐Greig, Teresa (1877–1964) (born Teresa Billington) English suffragette, socialist, and writer. Moving away from the militant branch of the suffragette movement led by Emmeline Pankhurst, she founded the Women's Freedom League in 1907 with Charlotte Despard and Edith How‐Martyn. Though an ardent suffragette, twice imprisoned for her activities, she disapproved of the use of violence, as indicated in her critique The Militant Suffrage Movement (1911). Billington was born in Blackburn, Lancashire, and educated at a convent school, later taking Manchester University extension classes. A teacher and member of the Independent Labour Party, she was secretary of the Manchester Equal Pay League, and met Pankhurst when her job was threatened for refusing to teach religious instruction. She joined Pankhurst's Women's Social and Political Union in 1903 and became its London organizer in 1907.
Bill of Rights in Britain, an act of Parliament of 1689 that established Parliament as the
Page69 primary governing body of the country. It made provisions limiting royal prerogative (the right to act independently of Parliament) with respect to legislation, executive power, money levies, courts, and the army, and stipulated Parliament's consent to many government functions. The Bill of Rights embodied the Declaration of Rights which contained the conditions on which William and Mary were offered the throne in the Glorious Revolution. The act made illegal the suspension of laws by royal authority without Parliament's consent; the power to dispense with laws; the establishment of special courts of law; levying money by royal prerogative without Parliament's consent; and the maintenance of a standing army in peacetime without Parliament's consent. It also asserted a right to petition the sovereign, freedom of parliamentary elections, freedom of speech in parliamentary debates, and the necessity of frequent parliaments. The Bill of Rights is the nearest approach to a written constitution that the United Kingdom possesses. Its provisions, where applicable, were incorporated in the US constitution ratified in 1788.
Birkbeck, George (1776–1841) English doctor and pioneer of workers' education. Born in Settle, Yorkshire, he studied medicine and philosophy in Edinburgh. As professor of natural philosophy at Anderson's College, Glasgow, he started giving free lectures to workers in 1799 and these classes later became the Glasgow Mechanics' Institution. He moved to London as a doctor in 1804 and established a similar scheme of free classes for workers there. This scheme became the London Mechanics' Institute in 1824 and then evolved to become Birkbeck College, a college offering part‐time degrees in the new University of London, which he also helped found.
Birkenhead, F(rederick) E(dwin) Smith (1872–1930) (1st Earl of Birkenhead) British lawyer and Conservative politician. He was a flamboyant and ambitious character, and played a major role in securing the Anglo‐Irish Treaty in 1921, which created the Irish Free State (now the Republic of Ireland). As a lawyer, his greatest achievement was the Law of Property Act of 1922, which forms the basis of current English land law. During the Irish crisis of 1914 over the granting of home rule, he joined with his fellow Conservative Edward Carson in organizing armed resistance in Ulster. Although often characterized by the press and political contemporaries as a swashbuckling orator, Smith proved himself a tireless, responsible, and far‐sighted statesman. He also wrote a number of popular literary works. F E Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead British politician 'The world continues to offer glittering prizes to those who have stout hearts and sharp swords.' [Rectorial address at Glasgow University 7 November 1923]
Birkett, (William) Norman (1883–1962) (1st Baron of Ulverston) English lawyer and politician. He was a Liberal member of Parliament 1923–24 and 1929–31. He was a judge of the King's Bench Division 1941–50, and in 1945 was appointed a deputy member of the International War Criminal Court. He became a privy councillor
Page70 in 1947.
Bishops' Wars struggles between King Charles I of England and Scottish Protestants 1638–40 over Charles' attempt to re‐impose royal authority over the church in Scotland. The name derives from the Arminian bishops in England who were seen as the driving force behind Charles' attempt.
Black, Clementina Maria (1853–1922) English suffragist, trade unionist, and novelist. After serving as secretary of the Women's Provident and Protective League, she set up the more militant Women's Trade Union Association (1889). This merged with the Women's Industrial Council (1897) and she became its president, playing an active role in collecting data on women's work and campaigning against sweated industries. She published Married Women's Work in 1915. Black was born in Brighton, East Sussex, and educated at home. On her mother's death she moved to London, where she conducted research for her novels and lectured on 18th‐century literature. Her publications include Sweated Industry and the Minimum Wage (1907), A Case for Trade Boards (1909), and a number of novels. Her sister Constance Garnett (1862–1946) was a distinguished translator of Russian literature.
Black and Tans nickname of a special auxiliary force of the Royal Irish Constabulary formed from British ex‐soldiers on 2 January 1920 and in action in Ireland March 1920–December 1921. They were employed by the British government to combat the killing of policemen by the Irish Republican Army (IRA), the military wing of the Irish nationalist Sinn Fein government, during the Anglo‐Irish War, or War of Independence (1919–21). The name derives from the colours of their improvised khaki and black uniforms, and was also the name of a famous pack of hounds. The Black and Tans acquired a reputation for violent reprisals against the civilian population after IRA attacks. The peak of Black and Tan retribution is traditionally Bloody Sunday, 1920. On 21 November, after the IRA assassinated 13 men in Dublin, mainly British intelligence officers, the Black and Tans fired on a crowd at a Gaelic football match in Croke Park, killing 12 onlookers.
Blackburn, Helen (1842–1903) Irish social reformer and campaigner for women's suffrage. She was Secretary of the National Society for Women's Suffrage 1874–95 and editor of The Englishwoman's Review 1881–90. In 1899 she and the journal's owner Jessie Boucherett founded the Freedom of Labour Defence League, dedicated to upholding women's freedom and their powers of earning. Blackburn was born in Knightstown, County Kerry, the daughter of a civil engineer and inventor. In 1859 she and her family moved to London. Her many publications include a Handbook for Women Engaged in Social and Political Work 1881 and Women's Suffrage: A Record of the Movement in the British Isles 1902.
Black Prince nickname of Edward, Prince of Wales, eldest son of Edward III of England.
Blackwood, Henry (1770–1832) British admiral. During the Revolutionary Wars with France,
Page71 he was commended by Horatio Nelson for his conduct in a sea fight 1800 between the Penelope, which Blackwood was commanding, and the Guillaume Tell. He served with Nelson at Cádiz, and later under Collingwood. Blackwood became commander‐in‐chief in the East Indies 1819.
Blair, Tony (1953–) (born Anthony Charles Lynton Blair) British Labour politician, leader of the Labour Party from 1994, prime minister from 1997. A centrist in the manner of his predecessor John Smith, he became Labour's youngest leader by a large majority in the first fully democratic elections to the post in July 1994. He moved the party away from its traditional socialist base towards the 'social democratic' political centre, under the slogan 'New Labour', securing approval in 1995 of a new Labour Party charter, which removed the commitment to public ownership. During the 2003 US‐led Iraq War, he was a firm ally of US president George W Bush, despite strong opposition from within sections of the Labour Party and the public. This damaged his public standing, amid accusations that his government had overstated the military threat posed by Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. Blair and his party secured landslide victories in the 1997 and 2001 general elections, with 179‐seat and 167‐seat majorities respectively. During his first term as prime minister, Blair retained high public approval ratings and achieved a number of significant reforms, including Scottish and Welsh devolution, reform of the House of Lords, ceding control over interest rates to the Bank of England, a national minimum wage, the creation of an elected mayor for London, and a peace agreement in Northern Ireland. His government pursued a cautious economic programme, similar to that of the preceding Conservative administrations, involving tight control over public expenditure and the promotion, in the Private Finance Initiative, of 'public–private partnerships'. This achieved steady economic growth and higher levels of employment, providing funds for greater investment in public services during Blair's second term, from 2001. In 2003, public support for Blair fell, both because of concerns that investment in public services had not delivered clear improvements, and because of criticism of his stance on the Iraq War. Blair's presidential style of governing involves delegating much to individual ministers, but intervening in key areas in an effort to build up public support. He was supported by a large team of political advisers and media 'spin doctors', who emphasized the importance of image and presentation. In his second term, Blair spent more time on international diplomacy, trying to act as a bridge between the USA and European Union countries in the run‐up to the Iraq War.
Page72 Blair
(Image © Research Machines plc)
Page73 English leader of the Labour Party, Tony Blair. Blair was born in 1953 and educated at St John's College, Oxford, where he studied law. Blair practised as a lawyer before becoming a member of Parliament in 1983, and he shares his legal background with his wife Cherie Booth, a leading barrister. One of the architects of New Labour, Blair led Labour to landslide election victories in 1997 and 2001. Tony Blair British labour politican and prime minister from 1997 'I was completely, totally, 100% stunned.' [On learning that his wife Cherie was expecting their fourth child at the age of 45. Radio 5 Live, 19 November 1999] Tony Blair Prime minister 'I'm terribly sorry, but would you mind if my wife and I butted in? The thing is, I've got to go and see the Queen at six o'clock.' [Pulls rank at a parents' evening at the London Oratory school; Independent, 11 July 1998] Tony Blair British Labour politician, prime minister from 1997 'In politics you sometimes despair of having a sensible debate.' [Independent, 11 January 1997] Tony Blair UK prime minister 'On my mother's side were very strong Protestants. I married a Catholic, although I am Church of England. We are about to enter the 21st century. Do these things really have to pull people apart?' [Newsweek 1999.]
Page74 Tony Blair British Labour politician, prime minister from 1997 'The hard question in government is not how many times you say 'Yes', but how often you are prepared to say 'No'.' [Interview on the eve of the 1997 general election; Time, 28 April 1997] Tony Blair British labour politican and prime minister from 1997 'There's only one thing the public dislikes more than a leader in control of his party, and that's a leader not in control of his party.' [Speaking at the Old Vic celebrations of the Labour Party's 100th birthday. Daily Telegraph, 28 February 2000] Tony Blair British Labour politician, prime minister from 1997 'We are not the masters. The people are the masters. We are the people's servants.' [Addressing new Labour members of Parliament at the House of Commons, May 1997] William Hague Leader of the Conservative Party 'Of course he's said it; there's hardly anything he hasn't said.' [On being told that one of his speeches echoed the views of Tony Blair; Independent on Sunday, 24 January 1999] Chris Patten Former Conservative MP and governor of Hong Kong 'I wish I'd been less of a pragmatist when I was young. Mr Blair is a fundamentally decent person, but he doesn't know what he believes in.' [Interview by Alice Thompson in the Daily Telegraph, 4 September 1998]
Page75 Paul Routledge Biographer of Peter Mandelson 'People kept asking if I was going to do a biography of Tony Blair but I wanted to write about a serious politician.' [On his plans to write a biography of the Conservative MP Airey Neave, murdered by the IRA in 1979; Daily Telegraph, 15 June 1999] Statement From a pro‐Pinochet Chilean Web site 'Tony Blair is the prime minister of England. He is very left‐wing and is an example of the socialist takeover of Europe.' [Independent, 27 March 1999] Zelena Zigon Serbian actor 'Do you think Tony Blair can possibly survive after this war? Surely the British will now throw him out?' [Daily Telegraph, 5 June 1999]
Blake, George (1922–1994) British double agent who worked for MI6 and also for the USSR. Blake was unmasked by a Polish defector in 1961 and imprisoned, but escaped to the Eastern bloc in 1966. He is said to have betrayed at least 42 British agents to the Soviet side.
Blake, Robert (1599–1657) British admiral of the Parliamentary forces during the English Civil War. Appointed 'general‐at‐sea' in 1649, the following year he destroyed Prince Rupert's privateering Royalist fleet off Cartagena, Spain. In 1652 he won several engagements against the Dutch navy. In 1654 he bombarded Tunis, the stronghold of the Barbary corsairs, and in 1657 captured the Spanish treasure fleet in Santa Cruz.
blanketeers Manchester hand‐loom weavers who began a march on London in March 1817, in protest against the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act and the economic slump after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. They were so named because they carried their blankets on the march. The march was broken up in Stockport, Cheshire, the day after it began. See also Peterloo massacre.
Blenheim, Battle of in the War of the Spanish Succession, decisive victory on 13 August 1704
Page76 of Allied troops under Marlborough over French and Bavarian armies near the Bavarian village of Blenheim (now in Germany) on the left bank of the Danube, about 25 km/18 mi northwest of Augsburg. Although the war was to continue for a further eight years, Blenheim marked the turning point at which the power of France was first broken.
Bligh, William (1754–1817) English sailor. He accompanied Captain James Cook on his second voyage around the world (1772–74), and in 1787 commanded HMS Bounty on an expedition to the Pacific. On the return voyage, in protest against harsh treatment, the crew mutinied. Bligh was sent to Australia as governor of New South Wales in 1805, where his discipline again provoked a mutiny in 1808 (the Rum Rebellion). Bligh went to Tahiti with the Bounty to collect breadfruit‐tree specimens, and gained the nickname 'Breadfruit Bligh'. In the mutiny, he and those of the crew who supported him were cast adrift in a boat with no map and few provisions. They survived, after many weeks reaching Timor, near Java, having drifted 5,822 km/3,618 mi. Many of the crew settled in the Pitcairn Islands. On his return to England in 1790, Bligh was exonerated for his conduct. In the Revolutionary Wars, Bligh took part in several naval battles: he was present at the Nore in 1797, later fought at Camperdown, and was specially mentioned at the battle of Copenhagen in 1801. After the failure of his Australian appointment, he returned to Britain, and was made an admiral in 1811.
Blitz, the ((German Blitzkrieg'lightning war')) German air raids against Britain September 1940–May 1941, following Germany's failure to establish air superiority in the Battle of Britain. It has been estimated that about 42,000 civilians were killed, 50,000 were injured, and more than two million homes were destroyed and damaged in the Blitz, together with an immense amount of damage caused to industrial installations.
Blood, Thomas (1618–1680) Irish adventurer, known as Colonel Blood. In 1663 he tried to seize the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland at Dublin Castle, and in 1670 he attempted to assassinate the Duke of Ormond in 1670, possibly on instructions from the Duke of Buckingham. In 1671 he and three accomplices succeeded in stealing the crown and orb from the Tower of London, but were captured soon afterwards. Blood received estates in Ireland in return for military services rendered to the Parliamentary party during the English Civil War. These were forfeited at the Restoration of the monarchy but were later returned by Charles II. In 1671 Charles II visited him in prison, and through his favour Blood obtained his release.
Bloody Assizes courts held by judges of the High Court in the west of England under the Lord Chief Justice, Judge Jeffreys, after Monmouth' s rebellion in 1685. Over 300 rebels were executed and many more flogged or imprisoned.
Bloody Sunday shooting dead of 13 unarmed demonstrators in Londonderry, Northern Ireland, on 30 January 1972, by soldiers from the British Army's 1st Parachute Regiment. One wounded man later died from an illness
Page77 attributed to the shooting. The demonstrators were taking part in a march to protest against the British government's introduction of internment without trial in Northern Ireland on 9 August 1971. The British government‐appointed Widgery Tribunal found that the paratroopers were not guilty of shooting dead the 13 civilians in cold blood. In January 1998, however, British prime minister Tony Blair announced a new inquiry into the events of Bloody Sunday. other incidents The term 'Bloody Sunday' is also used to refer to a number of other historical shootings: notably, in Dublin on 21 November 1920, the killings conducted by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in which 13 died, and retaliatory shootings by the government's Black and Tans, who killed 3 IRA leaders, and later opened fire at a Gaelic football match in Croke Park, Dublin, killing 12 spectators; the massacre in Russia by tsarist troops of 1,000 protesters in St Petersburg on 2 January 1905 during the Russian Revolution; and in Britain on 13 November 1887, the dispersal by police of a meeting in Trafalgar Square organized by the Social Democratic Federation to demand the release of Irish nationalist William O'Brien, resulting in over a hundred casualties.
Blount, Charles (1563–1606) (Earl of Devonshire, 8th Baron Mountjoy) English soldier, a friend of the 2nd Earl of Essex. Blount accompanied him and Raleigh on their unsuccessful expedition to the Azores in 1597. He became Lord Deputy of Ireland in 1601 and quelled the revolt led by the Irish chief Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, when the Irish failed in their attempt to reach a Spanish force that had arrived at Kinsale in 1601. He subdued most of Ireland and was created earl in 1603. He was knighted in 1586.
blue books in Britain, former official reports published by the government and Parliament on domestic and foreign affairs in the 19th and early 20th centuries, so named for their blue paper covers. They were usually the reports of a royal commission or a committee, but short acts of Parliament were also sometimes known as blue books, even when they had no cover.
Blunt, Anthony Frederick (1907–1983) English art historian and double agent. As a Cambridge lecturer, he recruited for the Soviet secret service and, as a member of the British Secret Service 1940–45, passed information to the USSR. In 1951 he assisted the defection to the USSR of the British agents Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean (1913–1983). He was the author of many respected works on Italian and French art, including a study of Poussin 1966–67. Unmasked in 1964, he was given immunity after his confession.
Boadicea alternative (Latin) spelling of British queen Boudicca.
Bodichon, Barbara (1827–1890) (born Barbara Leigh‐Smith) English feminist and campaigner for women's education and suffrage. She wrote Women at Work (1857) and with Bessie Rayner Parkes was a founder of the feminist magazine The Englishwoman's Journal (1858). She helped to found the college for women that became Girton College, Cambridge.
Page78 Bodichon was born in London, the daughter of a radical member of Parliament who believed strongly in women's rights, and studied at Bedford College. In 1852 she opened a primary school in London. She was also an accomplished landscape watercolourist.
Bodley, Thomas (1545–1613) English scholar and diplomat, after whom the Bodleian Library in Oxford is named. After retiring from Queen Elizabeth I's service in 1597, he concentrated on restoring the university's library, which was opened as the Bodleian Library in 1602. He was knighted in 1604.
Boleyn, Anne (c. 1507–1536) Queen of England 1533–36 as the second wife of Henry VIII. She gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I in 1533, but was unable to produce a male heir to the throne, and was executed on a false charge. Having no male heir by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, Henry broke from Rome and the pope (starting the Reformation) in order to divorce Catherine and marry Anne. She was married to him in 1533, but three years later was accused of adultery and incest with her half‐ brother (a charge invented by Thomas Cromwell), and sent to the Tower of London. She was declared guilty, and was beheaded on 19 May 1536 at Tower Green.
Page79 Boleyn
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Page80 A portrait of Anne Boleyn, the second wife of King Henry VIII of England (c. 1536, in the style of Holbein). Boleyn was introduced to the royal court in the late 1520s, where she became the King's mistress. Her resulting pregnancy (with the future Elizabeth I) hastened a secret marriage and the final annulment of Henry's previous marriage. In 1536, after the miscarriage of a son, Anne was brought to trial on treason charges and beheaded. Anne Boleyn Second wife of Henry VIII of England 'Never had a prince a more dutiful wife than you have in Anne Boleyn; with which name and place I could willingly have contented myself, if God and your Grace's pleasure had so been pleased.' [In her last letter to Henry VIII, May 1536]
Bolingbroke title of Henry of Bolingbroke, Henry IV of England.
Bolingbroke, Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke (1678–1751) British Tory politician and political philosopher. He was foreign secretary 1710–14 and a Jacobite conspirator. His books, such as Idea of a Patriot King (1738) and The Dissertation upon Parties (1735), laid the foundations for 19th‐century Toryism. Henry St John Bolingbroke British politician and political philosopher 'Nations, like men, have their infancy.' [On the Study of History] Henry St John Bolingbroke British politician and political philosopher 'Plain truth will influence half a score men at most ... while mystery will lead millions by the nose.' [Letter 28 July 1721]
Page81 Bonar Law British Conservative politician; see Law, Andrew Bonar.
Bondfield, Margaret Grace (1873–1953) British Labour politician and trade unionist. She became a trade‐union organizer to improve working conditions for women. She helped to found the National Federation of Women Workers in 1906 and was active in the Cooperative Women's Guild. She became chair of the Trades Union Congress in 1923 and was a Labour member of Parliament 1923–24 and 1926–31. As Minister for Labour 1929–31 she was the first woman to be a British cabinet minister.
Bonham‐Carter, (Helen) Violet (1887–1969) (Baroness Asquith of Yarnbury) British president of the Liberal party 1945–47. A close supporter of Winston Churchill, she published Winston Churchill as I Knew Him in 1965. She was the daughter of H H Asquith. She was created a DBE in 1953 and Baroness in 1964. Violet Bonham‐Carter English politician and publicist 'Tories are not always wrong, but they are always wrong at the right moment.' [The Observer 26 April 1964]
Boniface of Savoy (died 1270) English cleric, a Carthusian, archbishop of Canterbury from 1241, enthroned in 1249. His reforms met with strong resistance from the clergy and he retired to Rome until 1252. In 1256 he took part with the bishops against Henry III, but in 1263 he joined the papal legate in excommunicating the rebellious barons.
Bonnie Prince Charlie Scottish name for Charles Edward Stuart, pretender to the throne.
Booth, Catherine (1829–1890) (born Catherine Mumford) English co‐founder of the Salvation Army with her husband William Booth. In about 1860 she became a public preacher, initiating the ministry of women. After preaching tours throughout the country, she helped to set up the Christian Mission in Whitechapel, London, in 1865, which later became the Salvation Army in 1878; she also started the Army's women's work. Her belief in woman preachers is outlined in the pamphlet Female Ministry (1859).
Booth, Charles (1840–1916) English shipowner and sociologist; author of the study Life and Labour of the People in London (1902) conducted from 1889, in which he found that 30% of Londoners lived in
Page82 unacceptable conditions. Booth argued that poverty was not caused by idleness or drink, but by low wages, sickness, and unemployment. He argued that poverty caused depravity. Booth served on the Royal Commission that investigated the poor law 1905–09, and campaigned for an old‐age pension scheme.
Booth, William (1829–1912) English founder of the Salvation Army (1878), and its first 'general'. Booth was born in Nottingham. He experienced religious conversion at the age of 15. In 1865 he founded the Christian Mission in Whitechapel, east London, which became the Salvation Army in 1878. In Darkest England, and the Way Out (1890) contained proposals for the physical and spiritual redemption of the many down‐and‐outs. His wife Catherine Booth, whom he married in 1855, became a public preacher in about 1860, initiating the ministry of women. Their eldest son, William Bramwell Booth (1856–1929), became chief of staff of the Salvation Army in 1880 and was general from 1912 until his deposition in 1929.
Page83 Booth
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Page84 English evangelist and founder of the Salvation Army William Booth, with two of his grandchildren. Popularly known as General Booth, he was a Methodist revivalist preacher who worked actively to improve the condition of the poor, ministering to both their spiritual and physical needs. William Booth British founder of the Salvation Army 'A population sodden with drink, steeped in vice, eaten up by every social and physical malady, these are the denizens of Darkest England amidst whom my life has been spent.' ['In Darkest England, and the Way Out']
Boothby, Robert John Graham (1900–1986) (Baron Boothby) British politician, born in Scotland. He became Unionist member of Parliament for East Aberdeenshire in 1924 and was parliamentary private secretary to Winston Churchill 1926–29. He advocated the UK's entry into the European Community (now the European Union). He was parliamentary secretary to the ministry of food 1940–41, and in 1948 became an original member of the Council of United Europe. He was a prominent commentator on public affairs on radio and television. He was created a KBE in 1958 and Baron in 1958. Robert Boothby Scottish politician 'Compassion ... the urge to diminish the sum of human suffering ... brings the most abiding personal happiness.' [Robert Rhodes James Bob Boothby – A Portrait]
Borlase, William (1695–1772) English antiquary. In his Philosophical Transactions he published an essay on Cornish diamonds, and was made a Fellow of the Royal Society 1750. Subsequently he produced several works, including Antiquities of Cornwall 1754, and presented collections to the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.
Boscawen, Edward (1711–1761) English admiral who served against the French in the mid‐18th‐century wars, including the War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. He led expeditions to the East Indies 1748–50 and served as lord of the Admiralty from 1751, vice admiral from 1755, and admiral from 1758. To his men he was known as 'Old Dreadnought'.
Page85 Bosworth, Battle of battle fought on 22 August 1485, during the English Wars of the Roses (see Roses, Wars of the). Richard III, the Yorkist king, was defeated and killed by Henry Tudor, who became Henry VII. The battlefield is near the village of Market Bosworth, 19 km/12 mi west of Leicester, England. Henry Tudor inherited the Lancastrian claim and invaded England through Wales, landing at Milford Haven on 7 August. Richard had 11,000– 12,000 men and a strong position on Ambion Hill. Henry had 5,000–7,000 troops, but Lord Stanley and his brother commanded 5,000 and 3,000 men to the north and south of the royalists, respectively. Accounts of the battle are unclear, but it is possible that the Lancastrian Earl of Oxford was able to swing around the right flank of the royal army. This enabled a better concentration of force, left Northumberland unengaged on the royalist left, and brought Henry closer to Lord Stanley. After some fierce fighting, Richard saw Henry's banner moving northwards. Richard charged with his cavalry and almost cut his way through to Henry before he was killed as the Stanley troops joined the fray.
Bothwell, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell (c. 1536–1578) Scottish nobleman. The third husband of Mary Queen of Scots, 1567–70, he was alleged to have arranged the explosion that killed Darnley, her previous husband, in 1567. He succeeded as Earl in 1556 and became Duke in 1567.
Boucicault, Nina (1867–1950) English actor. She is chiefly remembered as the actor who first played Peter Pan in the London premiere of J M Barrie's immensely popular fantasy Peter Pan in 1904. Boucicault was born in London, the daughter of the distinguished playwright Dion Boucicault. She made her acting debut in her father's company in the USA in 1885. It was the beginning of a long and successful career which ended with her retirement from the stage in 1936.
Boudicca (died AD 61) Queen of the Iceni (native Britons), often referred to by the Latin form of her name, Boadicea. Her husband, King Prasutagus, had been a tributary of the Romans, but on his death in AD 60 the territory of the Iceni was violently annexed. Boudicca was scourged and her daughters raped. Boudicca raised the whole of southeastern England in revolt, and before the main Roman armies could return from campaigning in Wales she burned Londinium (London), Verulamium (St Albans), and Camulodunum (Colchester). Later the Romans under governor Suetonius Paulinus defeated the British between London and Chester; they were virtually annihilated and Boudicca poisoned herself. Boudicca Queen of the Iceni 'I am not fighting for my kingdom and wealth now. I am fighting as an ordinary person for my lost freedom, my bruised body, and my outraged daughters.' [Address to her army before the Icenian revolt in AD 61, quoted by Tacitus]
Page86 Bounty, Mutiny on the naval mutiny in the Pacific in 1789 against British captain William Bligh.
Bourchier, Thomas (c. 1410–1486) English archbishop of Canterbury 1454–86. He was previously bishop of Worcester in 1434 and bishop of Ely in 1443, and was Lord Chancellor 1455–56. Bourchier supported the Lancastrians at the beginning of the Wars of the Roses, but from 1461 supported Edward IV, whom he crowned. He also crowned Richard III and Henry VII. He was made a cardinal in 1467.
Bow Street Runners informal police force organized in 1749 by Henry Fielding, chief magistrate at Bow Street in London. The scheme was initially established as a force of detectives to aid the Bow Street Magistrates' court but from 1757 it was funded by the government to cover the rest of London. It formed the basis for the Metropolitan police force established by Robert Peel's government in 1829.
Boycott, Charles Cunningham (1832–1897) English ex‐serviceman and land agent in County Mayo, Ireland, 1873–86. He strongly opposed the demands for agrarian reform by the Irish Land League, 1879–81, with the result that the peasants refused to work for him; hence the word boycott, meaning to isolate an individual, organization, or country, socially or commercially. In response to his ostracism Boycott hired 50 Protestant Orangemen for the autumn harvest of 1880, but 1,000 troops were needed to protect them at a cost of £10,000 to the government. In 1886 he left Ireland permanently.
Boyle, Richard (1566–1643) (1st Earl of Cork; called 'the Great Earl') Anglo‐Irish administrator. After gaining great wealth and property, he promoted English Protestant immigration to Ireland, and won the favour of Queen Elizabeth I. He was made a privy counsellor in 1612, an Earl in 1620, and Lord High Treasurer of Ireland in 1631. During the Irish rebellion of 1641, he successfully defended the region of Munster against attack. He was the father of the distinguished scientist Robert Boyle. Born in Canterbury, England, Boyle studied at Cambridge and the Middle Temple before moving to Ireland in 1588. There he set about acquiring property, especially in Munster, through a mixture of deception and coercion, and soon became the richest landowner on the island. The ironworks that he owned were a particularly lucrative source of income. His marriage to an heiress in 1603 brought him further respectability and wealth. Although corrupt, he equipped areas under his jurisdiction with an infrastructure of roads, bridges, harbours, towns, and castles. From 1633, he was engaged in a struggle with the Lord Deputy of Ireland Thomas Wentworth (1593–1641), who was determined to arraign him on charges of fraud.
Boyle, Roger (1621–1679) (Baron Broghill, 1st Earl of Orrery) Irish soldier, politician, and author, the fifth son of Richard Boyle, 1st Earl of Cork. In the Civil War he first fought for the Royalists, but after the execution of Charles I joined forces with the Parliamentarians, and played a prominent role in
Page87 Oliver Cromwell's suppression of Irish Catholics. Prior to the Restoration of Charles II, he again adeptly changed sides, and became a trusted member of the king's circle. Boyle was born in Waterford. He was initially persuaded under duress to join Cromwell, but later won his favour, being appointed one of his special council and a member of the House of Lords. On Cromwell's death, he initially supported Richard Cromwell, but after his abdication and the collapse of the protectorate, crossed to Ireland and secured it for Charles II. Four months after the Restoration, he was rewarded by being made Earl of Orrery.
Boyne, Battle of the battle fought on 1 July 1690 in eastern Ireland, in which the exiled King James II was defeated by William III and fled to France. It was the decisive battle of the War of English Succession, confirming a Protestant monarch, and has become the most commemorated battle in modern Irish history. It took its name from the River Boyne which rises in County Kildare and flows 110 km/69 mi northeast to the Irish Sea. After obtaining aid from Louis XIV of France, James landed in Ireland where he had numerous supporters. King William also landed an army in Ireland, collected more forces from Londonderry, and marched south with about 36,000 troops. James's forces had taken up a position on the south side of the River Boyne, and William launched the attack by sending a force to cross the river some miles upstream so as to turn the Irish flank. The French turned to oppose this attack, and William then sent his cavalry across the river in a frontal assault on James's position. After fierce fighting the Irish foot soldiers broke but their cavalry continued to fight for some time before being routed. James fled to Dublin while his army largely became fugitives; any hopes of James's restoration to the English throne were finally dashed.
Braddock, Elizabeth Margaret (Bessie) (1899–1970) British union activist and Labour politician. Born in Liverpool, she was a city councillor in Liverpool from 1930 until 1961. She was Liverpool's first Labour and first female member of Parliament, winning the Exchange division in 1945 and holding this until 1970. A right‐winger, she was a powerful and caustic platform speaker and a stout defender of working people's rights to better health and education services. She turned down the offer of a post in the 1964 Labour government. Braddock's early activism was in the Cooperative movement and the Union of Distributive and Allied Workers. She left the Independent Labour Party in 1920 to join the Communist Party and then Labour in 1924. She married John Braddock in 1922 and together they dominated the divisive world of Liverpool Labour politics. They also wrote The Braddocks (1962).
Bradlaugh, Charles (1833–1891) British freethinker and radical politician. In 1880 he was elected Liberal member of Parliament for Northampton, but was not allowed to take his seat until 1886 because, as an atheist, he claimed the right (unsuccessfully) to affirm instead of taking the oath. He was associated with the feminist Annie Besant.
Bradshaw, John (1602–1659) English judge who pronounced the death sentence on King Charles I. In the Civil War, when the king was brought to trial 1649, Bradshaw was president of the court. He put aside all legal objections to the court, refused to allow Charles to speak in his own defence, and condemned him to death. After the king's execution, Bradshaw became one of the prominent leaders of the Commonwealth.
Page88 Brady, Ian (1938–) British murderer who, with Myra Hindley, abducted, sexually abused, and murdered two children and a 17‐year‐old youth between 1963 and 1965. They were known as 'the Moors Murderers' because they buried most of their victims on Saddleworth Moor in the Pennines, England. In a case that horrified the British public, Brady and Hindley documented their activities, to the extent of taking photographs and recording the torment of their victims. They were arrested after Hindley's brother‐in‐law witnessed a murder and went to the police. During the mid‐1980s Brady and Hindley separately confessed to the murder of two other children. Brady is now in a maximum security hospital on Merseyside.
Brant, Joseph (1742–1807) (Mohawk Thayendanegea ('he places two bets')) Mohawk chief, Anglican missionary, and British military officer during the American Revolution. Brant, who was awarded a captain's commission in 1775, led four of the six nations of the Iroquois League against the revolutionaries in numerous battles in New York state. Born on the banks of the Ohio River, Brant learned English and studied European history and literature at Moor's Charity School for Indians in Lebanon, Connecticut 1761–63. He then translated the Gospel of Mark into Mohawk with the Anglican Missionary, the Reverend John Stuart, for whom he acted as interpreter. In 1775 he travelled to England in an attempt to recover Mohawk lands, meeting King George III on two occasions. On 6 August 1777 Brant commanded the Mohawks and Seneca in the Battle of Oriskany against the Americans and their allies, the Oneida and Tuscarora, effectively ending the Iroquois League.
Breakspear, Nicholas original name of Adrian IV, the only English pope.
Brendan, St (or St Brandan) (484–577) (also known as Brendan of Clonfert) Irish abbot and traveller. Born in Tralee, now in County Kerry, he is traditionally regarded as the founder of the monastery of Clonfert in County Galway (561), as well as other monasteries in Ireland and Scotland. The 8th‐century Irish epic Voyage of St Brendan recounts his legendary journey across the Atlantic to a 'land of saints'. His feast day is 16 May. St Brendan is believed to have studied under the abbess St Ita in Limerick and abbot St Jarlath in Tuam. His first appointment as abbot was at Ardfert.
Brent‐Dyer, (Gladys) Elinor M(ay) (1894–1969) (born Elinor Dyer) English children's writer. Author of 98 schoolgirl novels, her fourth book, The School at the Chalet (1925), established her popular 'Chalet School' series, which were set in an English school in the Austrian Tyrol and featured the heroine Jo Bettany. Brent‐Dyer was born in South Shields, Tyne and Wear, and educated at Leeds University, later becoming headmistress of the Margaret Roper Girls' School in Hereford. The first of her schoolgirl novels, Gerry Goes to School, appeared in 1922, and the final book in the series, Prefects of the Chalet School, was published posthumously in 1970.
Page89 Brett, Jeremy (1933–1995) (adopted name of Jeremy Huggins) English actor. He won acclaim for his classical performances with the Old Vic, London, in the 1950s and appeared on Broadway in Richard II (1956). On television he is known for his definitive portrayal of Arthur Conan Doyle's Victorian sleuth in The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1984–85), The Return of Sherlock Holmes (1986–88), The Casebook of Sherlock Holmes (1991), and The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes (1994), as well as several specials. His other television work includes The Three Musketeers (1966–67), Rebecca (1979), and The Barretts of Wimpole Street (1982). He once played Dr Watson, to Charlton Heston's Holmes, in a Los Angeles stage production entitled The Crucifer of Blood (1981). Film appearances include War and Peace (1956) and My Fair Lady (1964). He was born in Berkswell, Warwickshire.
Bretwalda ((from Old English Bretenanwealda, 'ruler of Britain')) 9th‐century Anglo‐Saxon title for a powerful king who exercised authority over England south of the Humber. The term was initially used in Bede's list of hegemonic rulers, but also extended to include more recent kings, such as Egbert of Wessex. Other powerful kings holding much the same sway, such as Offa of Mercia, were not included. The existence of the title provides important evidence for the early concept of an English 'nation'.
Brian Bóruma (or Brian Boru) (c. 941–1014) King of Munster from 976 and high king of Ireland from 999. His campaigns represent the rise of Munster as a power in Ireland, symbolized by his victory over Leinster and the Dublin Norse at Glen Mama in 999. He was renowned as a builder of forts, and this may have been his most significant military legacy. He died in victory over the Vikings at Clontarf in Dublin. Brian Bóruma is an Irish national hero, celebrated as the conqueror of the Vikings, although the Battle of Clontarf made very little difference to the Irish position in Ireland. The War of the Irish against the Foreigners, a piece of 12th‐century dynastic propaganda, provides details of his campaigns from 968 to 1014, which saw him emerge as high king. He was the last high king with jurisdiction over most of Scotland.
Bright, John (1811–1889) British Liberal politician. He was a campaigner for free trade, peace, and social reform. A Quaker mill‐owner, he was among the founders of the Anti‐Corn Law League in 1839, and was largely instrumental in securing the passage of the Reform Bill of 1867. He sat in Gladstone's cabinets as president of the Board of Trade 1868–70 and chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1873–74 and 1880–82, but broke with him over the Irish Home Rule Bill. John Bright English radical 'England is the mother of Parliaments.' [Speech in House of Commons 1865]
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John Bright English radical 'Force is not a remedy.' [Speech in Birmingham, 1880] John Bright English radical 'If our forefathers two hundred years ago ... refused to be bondmen of a king, shall we be born thralls of an aristocracy like ours? Shall we, who struck the lion down, shall we pay homage to the wolf?' [Speech at an Anti‐Corn Law meeting, London, December 1845]
Brighton Pavilion alternative name for the Royal Pavilion, Brighton.
Brindley, James (1716–1772) English canal builder. He was the first to employ tunnels and aqueducts extensively, in order to reduce the number of locks on a direct‐route canal. His 580 km/360 mi of canals included the Bridgewater Canal (Manchester–Liverpool) and Grand Union Canal (Manchester–Potteries).
Britain island off the northwest coast of Europe, one of the British Isles. It comprises England, Scotland, and Wales (together officially known as Great Britain), and is part of the United Kingdom. The name is also sometimes used loosely to denote the United Kingdom. It is derived from the Roman name for the island Britannia, which in turn is derived from the ancient Celtic name for the inhabitants, Bryttas. Will Hutton English journalist '... the country is at a turning point like that of the 1630s, 1680s, 1830s, 1900s, and 1940s. In each of these periods there was a conflation of economic, social, and political crises which forced the decaying network of institutions to admit new demands for inclusion and participation.' [The State We're In (1995)]
Page91 Britain, ancient period in the British Isles (excluding Ireland) extending through prehistory to the Roman occupation (1st century AD). Settled agricultural life evolved in Britain during the 3rd millennium BC. A peak was reached in Neolithic society in southern England early in the 2nd millennium BC, with the construction of the great stone circles of Avebury and Stonehenge. It was succeeded in central southern Britain by the Early Bronze Age Wessex culture, with strong trade links across Europe. The Iron Age culture of the Celts was predominant in the last few centuries BC, and the Belgae (of mixed Germanic and Celtic stock) were partially Romanized in the century between the first Roman invasion of Britain under Julius Caesar (54 BC) and the Roman conquest (AD 43). For later history, see Roman Britain; United Kingdom. At the end of the last Ice Age, Britain had a cave‐dwelling population of Palaeolithic hunter‐gatherers, whose culture was called Creswellian, after Creswell Crags, Derbyshire, where remains of flint tools were found. Throughout prehistory successive waves of migrants from continental Europe accelerated or introduced cultural innovations. Important Neolithic remains include: the stone houses of Skara Brae, Orkney; so‐called causewayed camps in which hilltops such as Windmill Hill, Wiltshire, were enclosed by concentric fortifications of ditches and banks; the first stages of the construction of the ritual monuments known as henges (for example, Stonehenge, Woodhenge); and the flint mines at Grimes Graves, Norfolk. Burial of the dead was in elongated earth mounds (long barrows). The Beaker people probably introduced copper working to the British Isles. The aristocratic society of the Bronze Age Wessex culture of southern England is characterized by its circular burial mounds (round barrows); the dead were either buried or cremated, and cremated remains were placed in pottery urns. Later invaders were the Celts, a warrior aristocracy with an Iron Age technology; they introduced horse‐drawn chariots, had their own distinctive art forms, and occupied fortified hilltops. The Belgae, who buried the ashes of their dead in richly furnished flat graves, were responsible for the earliest British sites large and complex enough to be called towns; settled in southern Britain, the Belgae resisted the Romans from centres such as Maiden Castle, Dorset.
Britain, Battle of World War II air battle between German and British air forces over Britain from 10 July to 31 October 1940. The height of the battle occurred 30–31 August. At the outset the Germans had the advantage because they had seized airfields in the Netherlands, Belgium, and France, which were basically safe from attack and from which southeast England was within easy range. On 1 August 1940 the Luftwaffe had about 2,800 aircraft in France, Belgium, Holland, and Norway, outnumbering the RAF by four to one. The Battle of Britain had been intended as a preliminary to the German invasion plan Seelöwe (Sea Lion), which Hitler indefinitely postponed on 17 September and abandoned on 10 October, choosing instead to invade the USSR.
Britannia the Roman name for Britain, later a national symbol of Great Britain in the form of a seated woman with a trident. Also the name of the royal yacht, decommissioned in 1997.
British East India Company commercial company (1600–1873) chartered by Queen Elizabeth I and given a monopoly of trade between England and the Far East. In the 18th century, the company became, in effect, the ruler
Page92 of a large part of India, and a form of dual control by the company and a committee responsible to Parliament in London was introduced by Pitt's India Act 1784. The end of the monopoly of China trade came in 1834, and after the Indian Mutiny 1857–58 the crown took complete control of the government of British India. The India Act 1858 transferred all the company's powers to the British government. The East India Company set up factories (trading posts) in Masulipatam on the east coast of India in 1611; on the west coast in Surat in 1612; and on the east coast in Madras (now Chennai) in 1639. Attempts to set up a factory on the Hooghly (one of the mouths of the Ganges) began in 1640, but were unsuccessful until 1690; the settlement later developed into the city of Calcutta (now Kolkata). By 1652 there were some 23 English factories in India. Bombay (now Mumbai) came to the British crown in 1662, and was granted to the East India Company for £10 a year in 1668. The British victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 gave the company control of Bengal. East India Company '... establish such a politie of civil and military power and create and secure a large revenue ... as may be the foundation of a large, well‐grounded sure English dominion in India for all time to come.' [Letter from the East India Company, London, to its agent in Surat 1687]
British Empire empire covering, at its height in the 1920s, about a sixth of the landmass of the Earth, all of its lands recognizing the United Kingdom (UK) as their leader. It consisted of the Empire of India, four self‐governing countries known as dominions, and dozens of colonies and territories. The Empire was a source of great pride to the British, who believed that it was an institution for civilizing the world, and for many years Empire Day (24 May) saw celebration throughout the UK. After World War II it began to dissolve as colony after colony became independent, and in 2001 the UK had only 13 small dependent territories. With 53 other independent countries, it forms the British Commonwealth. Although Britain's monarch is accepted as head of the Commonwealth, most of its member states are republics. The present Commonwealth is a voluntary association of independent states. Only one of its members, Mozambique, which joined in 1995, was never a British colony (it was Portuguese). The Commonwealth's links are mainly cultural and economic, depending upon the fact that the English language is the lingua franca of all educated people in the territories that formed the British Empire, on the continuing ties of trade, and on the financial and technical aid provided by the economically developed members to the developing members.
British Empire the colonies of the British Empire sent more than 2.5 million men to fight for Britain's cause during World War I. India was the largest single provider, contributing nearly 1.3 million men. It is estimated that Canada sent some 418,000 men overseas, Australia contributed 322,000, South Africa more than 146,000, New Zealand some 124,000, and Rhodesia over 6,800. Large numbers were also provided by the West Indies and other parts of Africa and Asia. Colonial troops were deployed on most of the major battlefronts: the Western Front in France, South West Africa (now Namibia), Egypt, Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Palestine, Egypt, and Gallipoli in Turkey. They also served in the Royal Navy and the Royal Flying Corps. Figures vary, but by the end of the war, while Britain had lost an estimated 702,500 men, the colonial armies combined had lost over
Page93 206,000.
British Empire, Order of the British order of knighthood instituted in 1917 by George V. There are military and civil divisions, and the ranks are GBE, Knight Grand Cross or Dame Grand Cross; KBE, Knight Commander; DBE, Dame Commander; CBE, Commander; OBE, Officer; MBE, Member.
British Museum largest museum of the UK. Founded in 1753, it opened in London in 1759. Rapid additions led to the construction of the present buildings (1823–47). In 1881 the Natural History Museum was transferred to South Kensington.
broad church term used to describe Anglicans who accept the legitimacy of both Protestant and Catholic traditions within the Established Church.
Broadway codename given to a British base formed by the British Chindit forces east of Mohnyin, Burma (now Myanmar) March 1944. A supply dump and airstrip were set up inside a defended perimeter, and although frequently attacked from both ground and air, it remained in use until evacuated at the completion of the Chindit expedition May 1944.
Brooke, James (1803–1868) British administrator who became rajah of Sarawak, on Borneo, in 1841. In 1838 he headed a private expedition to Borneo, where he helped to suppress a revolt, for which the sultan gave him the title. Brooke became known as the 'the white rajah'. He was knighted in 1848. James Brooke British administrator and rajah of Sarawak 'I find it easier to govern thirty thousand Malays and Dayaks than to manage a dozen of your majesty's subjects.' [Said to Queen Victoria on a visit to Windsor in 1847]
Brookeborough, Basil Stanlake Brooke (1888–1973) (Viscount Brookeborough) Northern Irish Unionist politician and prime minister 1943– 63. He was born in Colebrook, County Fermanagh, and educated at Winchester and Sandhurst. A conservative unionist and staunch advocate of strong links with Britain, he entered the Northern Ireland House of Commons in 1929 and held ministerial posts 1933–45. His regime, particularly in the 1950s and 1960s, saw moderate improvements in economic prosperity and community relations but maintained an illiberal stance towards Northern Ireland's Catholic minority, and made no real attempt at significant political or economic reform. Brooke served in the Hussars during World War I, winning the Military Cross. He resigned his commission in 1920 to run his
Page94 large estates in Fermanagh; he became viscount in 1952. He was elected to the Northern Ireland senate in 1921 but resigned to play a leading role in the establishment of the Ulster Special Constabulary. Elected Unionist MP for County Fermanagh in 1929, he was appointed minister of agriculture 1933–41, and minister of commerce and production 1941–45. Following the death of Lord Craigavon in 1940, and the failure of his successor John Andrews (1871–1956), Brooke emerged as prime minister in 1943. His views on Northern Ireland's Catholics were notoriously bigoted. He advocated discrimination in private as well as public employment, stating that 'he had not a Roman Catholic about his own place,' and in 1959 supported the section of the Unionist Council which rejected the notion of allowing Catholics to join the Unionist Party. Following increasing political discontent led by the Northern Ireland Labour Party and dissension within his own party about rising unemployment and the poor state of the economy, Brookeborough resigned at the age of 75 on 23 March 1963. He retired from politics in 1968. Basil Stanlake Brooke Brookeborough Unionist politician of Northern Ireland 'Catholics are out to destroy Ulster with all their might and power. They want to nullify the Protestant vote, take all they can out of Ulster and then see it go to hell.' [Speech at Mulladuff, Newtownbutler, 12 July 1933.]
Brougham, Henry Peter (1778–1868) (1st Baron Brougham and Vaux) British Whig politician and lawyer. From 1811 he was chief adviser to the Princess of Wales (afterwards Queen Caroline), and in 1820 he defeated the attempt of George IV to divorce her. He was Lord Chancellor 1830–34, supporting the Reform Bill. Henry Brougham British Whig politician and lawyer 'Education makes a people easy to lead but difficult to drive; easy to govern, but impossible to enslave.' [Speech in House of Commons 29 January 1828]
Brown, (James) Gordon (1951–) British Labour politician, chancellor of the Exchequer from 1997. As chancellor he ceded to the Bank of England full control of interest rates, and promoted such key initiatives as the 'welfare to work' programme directed against unemployment and funded by a windfall tax imposed on privatized utilities. Brown entered Parliament in 1983, rising quickly to the opposition front bench. He took over from John Smith as shadow chancellor in 1992. After Smith's death in May 1994, he declined to challenge his close ally Tony Blair for the Labour Party leadership, retaining his post as shadow chancellor, and
Page95 assuming the chancellorship after the 1997 general election. During the Labour government's first term 1997–2001, he gained the reputation of being an 'iron chancellor', maintaining firm control over public expenditure despite demands from the left wing of the party for more funds for welfare reform and the National Health Service. After the 2001 general election, Brown released more funds for health and other government spending, but there were criticisms that expected benefits were not being achieved and the total tax burden was rising. Brown
(Image © Research Machines plc)
Born in 1951 and educated at Edinburgh University, Scottish Labour politician Gordon Brown became chancellor of the Exchequer in Tony Blair's New Labour government, which came to power after the 1997 election. A champion of market economics, Brown was central to New Labour's election successes.
Page96 Ken Livingstone Labour MP 'If Gordon's strategy goes belly‐up, it'll be a much livelier conference next year.' [Speaking at the Labour Party conference in Blackpool on the economic policy of Chancellor Gordon Brown; Daily Telegraph, 29 September 1998]
Brown, George Alfred (1914–1985) (Baron George‐Brown of Jevington) British Labour politician. He entered Parliament in 1945, was briefly minister of works in 1951, and contested the leadership of the party on the death of Hugh Gaitskell, but was defeated by Harold Wilson. George Brown British Labour politician 'If my own life proves anything, it proves that people still respond to convictions passionately held.' [In My Way]
Brown, John (1826–1883) Scottish servant and confidant of Queen Victoria from 1858.
Brown, William (1777–1857) Irish sea captain and admiral in the Argentine navy, born in Foxford, County Mayo. Moving to South America in 1811, he lived in Buenos Aires, Argentina, becoming a government privateer during the war with Spain 1812–14. Arrested for piracy in 1816, he was forced out of the navy, and attempted suicide in 1819. The outbreak of war with Brazil saw him restored to full rank in 1825 and he was given command of the navy. Although facing a vastly superior fleet, he won a number of crucial victories, especially the Battle of Juncal in 1827. He helped sign the peace in 1828, and retired that year. Brown was briefly governor of Buenos Aires 1828–29. Recalled to protect Argentina in the 1830s and 1840s, he successfully fought against Uruguay until his fleet was captured in 1845. He visited Ireland in 1847 and was shocked by the Great Famine.
Browne, George, Count de Browne (1698–1792) Irish soldier. He entered the service of the Elector Palatine in Germany in 1725 owing to his exclusion, as a Catholic, from appointments in his own country. He subsequently served with the Russian army, quelling a revolt against the Empress Anna Ivanovna. Later he fought in the Seven Years War, and was made major‐general, then field‐marshal, by Tsar Peter III. Browne was born in Camas, Limerick, Ireland.
Page97 Bruce, Robert King of Scotland; see Robert (I) the Bruce.
Bruce, Robert de (c. 1210–1295) (5th Lord of Annandale) Scottish noble, one of the unsuccessful claimants to the Scottish throne after the death of Alexander III in 1286. He lost out to John de Baliol in 1292, in a power struggle arbitrated by King Edward I of England. His grandson was Robert (I) the Bruce.
Brummell, Beau (George Bryan) (1778–1840) English dandy and leader of fashion. He introduced long trousers as conventional day and evening wear for men. A friend of the Prince of Wales, the future George IV, he later quarrelled with him. Gambling losses drove him in 1816 to exile in France, where he died in an asylum. Beau Brummell British dandy 'I always like to have the morning well‐aired before I get up.' [Charles Macfarlane Reminiscences of a Literary Life 27] Beau Brummell British dandy 'Who's your fat friend?' [Said to Lord Alvanley, referring to the Prince Regent, quoted in Gronow's Reminiscences]
Bryce, James (1838–1922) (1st Viscount Bryce) British Liberal politician, professor of civil law at Oxford University 1870–93. He entered Parliament 1880, holding office under Gladstone and Rosebery. He was author of The American Commonwealth 1888, ambassador to Washington 1907–13, and improved US‐Canadian relations. Viscount 1914. James Bryce British Liberal politician and professor of law 'Law will never be strong or respected unless it has the sentiment of the people behind it.' [James Bryce The American Commonwealth vol. 1, 352]
Page98 B‐Specials armed, part‐time section of the Royal Ulster Constabulary. The B‐Specials helped to police Northern Ireland between their formation in 1920 to their abolition in 1969. They were replaced by the Ulster Defence Regiment (UDR) in 1970.
Buckingham, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham (1592–1628) English courtier, adviser to James I and later Charles I. After Charles's accession, Buckingham attempted to form a Protestant coalition in Europe, which led to war with France; however, he failed to relieve the Protestants (Huguenots) besieged in La Rochelle in 1627. His policy on the French Protestants was attacked in Parliament, and when about to sail for La Rochelle for a second time, he was assassinated in Portsmouth.
Buckingham, George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham (1628–1687) English politician, a member of the Cabal under Charles II. A dissolute son of the first duke, he was brought up with the royal children. His play The Rehearsal satirized the style of the poet Dryden, who portrayed him as Zimri in Absalom and Achitophel. He succeeded to the dukedom in 1628.
Bull, Phil (1910–1989) (pseudonym William Temple) English racing information service founder. He made racing accessible to everyone by starting the Timeform organization in Halifax, Yorkshire. Today it is the world's largest information service for racing form. Bull was considered to be one of the most influential racing personalities of the 20th century, and his opinions and shrewd judgement on form were highly regarded. Timeform's annual publication in the Racehorses series contains ratings and comments for each horse that has run on the flat in Great Britain during that year and for the best horses in Ireland and France. As it is calculated in an unvarying scale, champions of different eras can be compared.
Bull, John imaginary figure personifying England; see John Bull.
Buller, Redvers Henry (1839–1908) British commander against the Boers in the South African War 1899–1902. He was defeated at Colenso and Spion Kop, but relieved Ladysmith; he was superseded by British field marshal Lord Roberts. KCMG 1882.
Burdett‐Coutts, Angela Georgina, Baroness Burdett‐Coutts (1814–1906) English philanthropist. In 1837 she inherited almost all the great wealth of her grandfather, the banker Thomas Coutts. She resolved to devote her vast wealth to the cause of philanthropy. Her philanthropic exertions were on a vast scale: she endowed the three bishoprics of Cape Town, Adelaide, and British Columbia. She also secured great improvements in the education of girls at the state schools. She also did much to aid the development of emigration schemes. Burdett‐Coutts was born in London, England. In 1881, she married William Ashmead‐Bartlett (1851–1921), who assumed her
Page99 name and was several times elected member of Parliament for Westminster. In 1871 she was made a peeress, and in 1872 she was presented with the freedom of the City of London, being the first woman to receive this privilege.
Burgess, Guy Francis de Moncy (1911–1963) British spy, a diplomat recruited in the 1930s by the USSR as an agent. He was linked with Kim Philby, Donald Maclean (1913–1983), and Anthony Blunt. Burgess was born in Devon and educated at Eton and Cambridge University where he became a communist. He worked for the BBC from 1936 to 1939, as talks producer, and wrote war propaganda from 1939 to 1941. In 1951 he defected to the USSR with Donald Maclean.
Burgh, Hubert de (died 1243) English justiciar and regent of England. He began his career in the administration of Richard I, and was promoted to the justiciarship by King John; he remained in that position under Henry III from 1216 until his dismissal in 1232. He was a supporter of King John against the barons, and ended French intervention in England by his defeat of the French fleet in the Strait of Dover in 1217. He became the most powerful figure in Henry III's minority following the death of the regent, William Marshall, in 1219. He reorganized royal administration and the Common Law.
Burghley, William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley (1520–1598) English politician, chief adviser to Elizabeth I as secretary of state from 1558 and Lord High Treasurer from 1572. He was largely responsible for the religious settlement of 1559, and took a leading role in the events preceding the execution of Mary Queen of Scots in 1587. Wiliam Cecil Burghley English politician 'But, as a servant, I will obey her majesty's commandment ... Presuming that she, being God's chief minister, it shall be God's will to have her commandments obeyed ... You see I am a mixture of divinity and policy.' [Letter to his son, March 1596]
Burke, Edmund (1729–1797) British Whig politician and political theorist, born in Dublin, Ireland. During a parliamentary career spanning more than 30 years, he was famous for opposing the government's attempts to coerce the American colonists, for example in Thoughts on the Present Discontents (1770), and for supporting the emancipation of Ireland. However, he was a vehement opponent of the French Revolution, which he denounced in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), and attacked the suggestion of peace with France in Letters on a Regicide Peace (1795–97). Burke was also the author of A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas on the Sublime and Beautiful (1756), on aesthetics. He was a leading figure in the impeachment of the British colonial administrator Warren Hastings. Burke's basic political credo – that liberty is only possible within the strict framework of law and order –
Page100 ensured that he was subsequently revered by British Conservatives as one of their main inspirational figures. Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'An event has happened, upon which it is difficult to speak, and impossible to be silent.' [Speech on the impeachment of Warren Hastings 1789] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Better to be despised for too anxious apprehensions, than ruined by too confident a security.' [Reflections on the Revolution in France] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Custom reconciles us to everything.' [On the Sublime and Beautiful] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Great men are the guide‐posts and landmarks in the state.' [Speech on American Taxation 1774] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'I am convinced that we have a degree of delight, and that no small one, in the real misfortunes and pains of others.' [On the Sublime and Beautiful]
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Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'I do not know the method of drawing up an indictment against an whole people.' [Speech on Conciliation with America 1775] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'It is a general popular error to imagine the loudest complainers for the public to be the most anxious for its welfare.' [Observation on a Publication, 'The present state of the nation'] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'It is the nature of all greatness not to be exact.' [Speech on American Taxation 1774] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Lastly, in the name of human nature itself, in the name of both sexes, in the name of every age, in the name of every rank, I impeach the common enemy and oppressor of all!' [Speech on the Impeachment of Warren Hastings 1789] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Liberty, too, must be limited in order to be possessed.' [Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol]
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Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Magnanimity in politics is not seldom the truest wisdom; and a great empire and little minds go ill together.' [Speech on Conciliation with America 1775] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Man is by his constitution a religious animal.' [Reflections on the Revolution of France] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Not merely a chip off the old 'block', but the old block itself.' [Remark on Pitt the younger's first speech] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Nothing is so fatal to religion as indifference, which is, at least, half infidelity.' [Letter to William Smith 29 January 1795] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'People will not look forward to posterity, who never look backward to their ancestors.' [Reflections on the Revolution in France]
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Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Rage and frenzy will pull down more in half an hour, than prudence, deliberation, and foresight can build up in a hundred years.' [Reflections on the Revolution in France] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Superstition is the religion of feeble minds.' [Reflections on the Revolution in France] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'The age of chivalry is gone. That of sophisters, economists, and calculators, has succeeded; and the glory of Europe is extinguished for ever.' [Reflections on the Revolution in France] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'The greater the power, the more dangerous the abuse.' [Speech on the Middlesex Election 1771] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'The people are the masters.' [Speech on the Economical Reform 1780]
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Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'The use of force alone is but temporary. It may subdue for a moment; but it does not remove the necessity of subduing again: and a nation is not governed, which is perpetually to be conquered.' [Speech on Conciliation with America 1775] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'To tax and to please, no more than to love and to be wise, is not given to men.' [Speech on American Taxation 1774] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Whenever our neighbour's house is on fire, it cannot be amiss for the engines to play a little on our own.' [Reflections on the Revolution of France] Edmund Burke Anglo‐Irish political theorist and Whig politician 'Would twenty shillings have ruined Mr Hampden's fortune? No! but the payment of half twenty shillings, on the principle it was demanded, would have made him a slave.' [Speech on American Taxation 1774]
Burke, John Bernard (1814–1892) Irish genealogist, son of John Burke, the founder of Burke's Peerage. He took over the editorship of the Peerage from his father, and published it annually from 1847, along with anecdotes of the aristocracy. An expert in heraldry, he was made Ulster King of Arms in 1853, and Keeper of the State Papers of Ireland in 1855.
Page105 Burnham, Harry Lawson‐Webster Levy‐Lawson (1862–1933) English politician and newspaper proprietor. He presided over the International Labour Conferences in Geneva, Switzerland (1921, 1922, and 1926). His name is perpetuated in the 'Burnham scale' by which schoolteachers' salaries are calculated, the result of a standing committee which he chaired. He became manager of the Daily Telegraph in 1903, and proprietor in 1916. He sold the newspaper in 1928.
Burns, John Elliot (1858–1943) British labour leader, born in London of Scottish parentage. He was sentenced to six weeks' imprisonment for his part in the Trafalgar Square demonstration on 'Bloody Sunday', 13 November 1887, and was leader of the strike in 1889 securing the 'dockers' tanner' (wage of 6d per hour). An Independent Labour member of Parliament 1892–1918, he was the first working‐class person to be a member of the cabinet, as president of the Local Government Board 1906–14. John Burns British Labour leader 'The Mississippi ... is muddy water ... the St Lawrence ... is crystal water. But the Thames is liquid history.' [Attributed remark]
Burton, Beryl (1937–1996) (born Beryl Charnock) English cyclist. Chiefly known for her time trial records, in the early 1960s she was rarely beaten in any field of cycling. In 1968 she rode 161 km/100 mi in 3 hours 55.05 minutes – only 12 years after the previous Briton – a man – had broken four hours for that distance. In total Burton won seven world championships. In 1967 she set a new British record with her distance of 446.12 km/277.25 mi covered in an amateur 12 hours' time trial. It was also 1.17 km/0.73 mi further than any man in the race could manage.
Bute, John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (1713–1792) British Tory politician, prime minister 1762–63. On the accession of George III in 1760, he became the chief instrument in the king's policy for breaking the power of the Whigs and establishing the personal rule of the monarch through Parliament.
Butler, Eleanor (1745–1829) Irish recluse, born in Dublin. In 1779 she and her friend Sarah Ponsonby (1755–1831) resolved to live in seclusion, and settled in a cottage at Plasnewydd in the vale of Llangollen in Wales, accompanied by a maidservant. They became celebrated throughout Europe as the 'Maids of Llangollen', or 'Ladies of the Vale', and attracted visitors from far and wide.
Butler, Elizabeth Southerden (1846–1933) (born Elizabeth Thompson) English painter. Popular in the Victorian era for her images of military life and warfare, she made her reputation with Roll Call (1874) and Inkermann (1877) but is perhaps best known for Scotland for Ever! (1881), which depicts the
Page106 charge of the Royal Scots Greys at the Battle of Waterloo. Butler was born in Lausanne, the daughter of a scholar and concert pianist. Her pictures seem to glorify war, but her focus was on the heroism of the common soldier rather than on the officers. She was the sister of the poet Alice Meynell (1847–1922).
Butler, Josephine Elizabeth (1828–1906) (born Josephine Elizabeth Gray) English social reformer. She promoted women's education and the Married Women's Property Act, and campaigned against the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1862–70, which made women in garrison towns suspected of prostitution liable to compulsory examination for venereal disease. Refusal to undergo examination meant imprisonment. As a result of her campaigns, the acts were repealed in 1883.
Butler, Richard Austen (1902–1982) (Baron Butler of Saffron Walden; called 'Rab') British Conservative politician. As minister of education 1941–45, he was responsible for the 1944 Education Act that introduced the 11‐plus examination for selection of grammar school pupils; he was chancellor of the Exchequer 1951–55, Lord Privy Seal 1955–59, and foreign minister 1963–64. As a candidate for the prime ministership, he was defeated by Harold Macmillan in 1957 (under whom he was home secretary 1957–62), and by Alec Douglas Home in 1963. Butler was born in India, the son of an administrator, and he was educated at Marlborough and Cambridge University. He was elected member of Parliament for Saffron Walden, Essex, in 1932. Richard Austen ('Rab') Butler British Conservative politician 'My own career ... exemplifies the advantages of the long haul ... the steady influence one may exert by being at all times on the inside.' [Roy Jenkins Gallery of 20th‐Century Portraits] Richard Austen ('Rab') Butler British Conservative politician 'Politics is the art of the possible.' [Attributed remark]
Butler, William Francis (1838–1910) Irish soldier and writer. Born in Suirville, Tipperary, he joined the British army in 1858, and served in Canada 1867–73, where his experiences provided the material for his popular work The Great Lone Land 1872. He served on the Red River expedition (1870–71), on the Ashanti expedition (1873), and in the Sudan (1884–85) and South Africa (1888–99). Butler also published biographies of
Page107 Charles George Gordon and Sir Charles Napier, together with several travel books.
Butler of Saffron Walden, Richard Austen Butler, Baron Butler of Saffron Walden (1902–1982) Indian‐born British politician. When the Conservatives returned to power in 1951, Butler became chancellor of the Exchequer. He held this post until December 1955, when he became lord privy seal and leader of the House of Commons. After Anthony Eden's resignation in January 1957, many expected that Butler would become prime minister. Eden was, however, succeeded by Harold Macmillan and Butler retained his existing offices and also accepted that of home secretary, a position he held until 1962, when he became first secretary of state and deputy prime minister. When Macmillan resigned in 1963 it was widely believed that Butler would succeed him and he had much support in the country as a whole, but when Alec Douglas‐Home was instead asked to form a government, Butler agreed to serve under him as foreign secretary, holding this position until the defeat of the Conservatives in 1964. Butler was born in Attock Serai, India, and educated at Marlborough School and Pembroke College, Cambridge University. He had a brilliant academic career and in 1929 became Conservative member of Parliament for Saffron Walden, a seat he held until 1965. He was under‐ secretary at the India Office (1932–37), parliamentary secretary to the Ministry of Labour (1937–38), under‐secretary at the Foreign Office (1938–41), and minister of education (1941–45), in which capacity he carried through the Education Act of 1944 which became known by his name. In 1945 he was minister of labour. He was given a life peerage in 1965, on becoming master of Trinity College, Cambridge University.
Butlers of Ormond (or Ormonde) principal Anglo‐Irish dynasty established in Munster in 1171 by Theobald Fitzwalter, who was created chief butler of Ireland by Henry II in 1177. The title Earl of Ormond was granted by Edward III in 1329. By 1391 the dynasty was pre‐eminent in Leinster and east Munster, with a magnificent castle seat at Kilkenny City. It enjoyed peaks of influence in Ireland in the 15th century under the 'White Earl', James, 4th Earl of Ormond (c. 1390–1452), and again in the 16th century during the suppression of the Kildares and through Elizabeth I's special relationship with 'Black' Tom, the 10th Earl (1532–1614). Loyalty to the Stuart cause in the 17th century was rewarded by the title of duke, granted to James, 12th Earl of Ormond in 1660, but rendered the house suspect as Jacobites after 1688; in 1715 James, 2nd Duke of Ormond was forced into exile in France. The house was restored by George II in 1755 but never again enjoyed such high political influence. Theobald Fitzwalter, the Anglo‐Norman founder of the dynasty, originally established the family seat at Gowran, North Kilkenny. The title of earl was granted to his 7th direct descendant, James Butler. Both the 2nd Earl of Ormond (earl 1338–82) and James, 3rd Earl of Ormond (earl 1382–1405) served as chief governors of Ireland. The family's influence in Ireland was at its highest in the later middle ages under the 'White Earl', who gained increasing influence over the Gaelic Irish lordships while successfully resisting English interference. Following his death, the family was eclipsed by the rise of their neighbours and rivals the Fitzgeralds of Kildare, but this was reversed by Piers, 8th Earl of Ormond (earl 1515–39) and James, 9th Earl of Ormond (earl 1539–46), who exploited the downfall of the Kildares to regain national importance. However, although their successor 'Black' Tom enjoyed unprecedented influence at the English court, the hostility of the New English planters combined with his failure to produce a male heir plunged the family into crisis in the early 17th century. The dynasty recovered under the 1st Duke of Ormond, but its unswerving loyalty to the Stuarts led the 2nd Duke to be accused of treason in 1714. After the restoration of the house the family recovered its estates and has sustained
Page108 its line of descent to the present.
Butt, Isaac (1813–1879) Irish Protestant lawyer who founded the idea of home rule for Ireland. He became a lawyer 1838 and Tory MP for Youghal 1851, and defended Fenian prisoners from 1865–69. He was converted to nationalism and popularized the slogan 'home rule', founding the Home Government Association (Home Rule League) 1870 and leading it until 1878.
Buxton, Thomas Fowell (1786–1845) English philanthropist and politician. Though he worked strenuously for prison reform, and tried to carry a scheme for bettering the condition of the African negroes, his life work was to promote emancipation of slaves throughout the British dominions. In this cause he proved himself a worthy successor to William Wilberforce, whom he followed as leader of the anti‐ slavery party in 1824. Buxton was born in Earl's Colne, Essex, England. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. From 1818–37 he represented Weymouth as a member of Parliament; his opposition to bribery caused him to lose his seat. He published African Slave Trade (1838) and The Remedy (1840).
Byng, George (1663–1733) (1st Viscount Torrington) British admiral. He captured Gibraltar in 1704; commanded the fleet that prevented an invasion of England by the 'Old Pretender' James Francis Edward Stuart in 1708; and destroyed the Spanish fleet at Messina in 1718. John Byng was his fourth son. Knighted 1704, Viscount 1721. At the Battle of Beachy Head in 1690 he advised protecting the Thames and awaiting the return of the rest of the fleet, but Queen Mary ordered him to give battle. He was subsequently court‐martialled and acquitted.
Byng, John (1704–1757) British admiral. Byng failed in the attempt to relieve Fort St Philip when in 1756 the island of Menorca was invaded by France. He was court‐martialled and shot. The French writer Voltaire ironically commented that it was done 'to encourage the others'. John Byng British admiral '(I consider myself) a victim destroyed to divert the indignation and resentment of an injured and deluded people.' [On his court‐martial and death sentence, quoted in Dudley Pope At Twelve Mr Byng Was Shot]
Byron, Annabella (1792–1860) (Lady Noel Byron; born Annabella Milbanke) English philanthropist. A committed advocate of schemes for improving women's education, many of which she funded, Byron was also involved in agricultural and industrial reforms, co‐operative movements, the antislavery movement (she was a friend of the US abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe), and other radical causes.
Page109 In 1854 she purchased the Red Lodge in Bristol on behalf of the social reformer Mary Carpenter (1807–1877) who opened it as a home for girl offenders. Other close friends within the radical circles she frequented included the art critic Anna Jameson (1794–1860) and Barbara Bodichon, a champion of women's rights.
C Cabal, the ((from Kabbalah)) group of politicians, the English king Charles II's counsellors 1667–73, whose initials made up the word by coincidence – Clifford (Thomas Clifford 1630–1673), Ashley (Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury), Buckingham (George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham), Arlington (Henry Bennett, 1st Earl of Arlington 1618–1685), and Lauderdale (John Maitland, Duke of Lauderdale). The word cabal, meaning 'association of intriguers', is now applied to any faction that works in secret for private or political ends.
Cade, Jack (died 1450) English rebel. He was a prosperous landowner, but led a revolt in 1450 in Kent against the high taxes and court corruption of Henry VI and demanded the recall from Ireland of Richard, Duke of York. The rebels defeated the royal forces at Sevenoaks and occupied London. After being promised reforms and pardon they dispersed, but Cade was hunted down and killed near Heathfield in Sussex.
Cadwalader (died c. 664) Semi‐mythical British king, the son of Cadwallon, king of Gwynedd, North Wales, described by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his book Historia Regum Britanniae (History of the Kings of Britain).
Cadwallon (or Caedwalla) (lived 6th century) King of Gwynedd (c. 625–34), in North Wales. He allied with Penda of Mercia and in 632 defeated and killed Edwin of Northumbria at Hatfield Chase. The following year he was himself defeated and killed near Hexham by Edwin's nephew, Oswald. Cadwallon was the only known British king in historic times who crushed an English dynasty.
Caernarfon (or Carnarvon) administrative centre of Gwynedd, north Wales, situated on the southwest shore of the Menai Strait; population (1991 est) 9,700. Formerly the Roman station of Segontium, it is now a market town, port, and tourist centre. Industries include the manufacture of plastics and metal‐working. 88% of the population of Caernarfon is Welsh‐speaking. Caernarfon castle, one of the finest examples of medieval fortifications in the British Isles, lies to the west of the town. It was built by Edward I in 1284, and is a World Heritage Site. The first Prince of Wales (later Edward II) was born in Caernarfon Castle (1284). The castle was besieged by Owen Glendower in 1402. Edward VIII was invested in Caernarfon in 1911 and Prince Charles in 1969.
Caledonia Roman term for the Scottish Highlands, inhabited by the Caledoni. The tribes of the area remained outside Roman control – they were defeated but not conquered by Agricola in AD 83 to 84 and again by Septimius Severus who reached beyond modern Aberdeen in 208. Since the 18th century, the name has been revived as a romantic alternative for the whole of Scotland.
Page110 Calvert, George, 1st Baron Baltimore (1579–1632) English politician who founded the North American colony of Maryland 1632. As a supporter of colonization, he was granted land in Newfoundland 1622 but, finding the climate too harsh, obtained a royal charter for the more temperate Maryland 1632. Calvert was born in Yorkshire, England, and educated at Oxford. A confidant of King James I, he served in Parliament and the Privy Council. He became secretary of state, but was forced to resign from that office 1625 because of his conversion to Roman Catholicism.
Camden, William (1551–1623) English antiquary. He published his topographical survey Britannia in 1586 and his Annales, a history of Elizabeth's reign to 1588, in 1615. He was headmaster of Westminster School from 1593. The Camden Society (1838) commemorates his work. William Camden English antiquary 'Betwixt the stirrup and the ground / Mercy I asked, mercy I found.' [Remains, 'Epitaph for a Man Killed by Falling from His Horse']
Camelot in medieval romance, legendary seat of King Arthur. A possible site is the Iron Age hill fort of South Cadbury Castle in Somerset, England, where excavations from 1967 have revealed remains dating from 3000 BC to AD 1100, including those of a large settlement dating from the 6th century, the time ascribed to Arthur.
Cameron, John (died 1446) Scottish cleric and statesman. He was appointed secretary to King James I of Scotland in 1424, keeper of the privy seal in 1425, keeper of the great seal in 1427, and bishop of Glasgow and chancellor of Scotland in 1428.
Campbell, Colin (1792–1863) (1st Baron Clyde) British field marshal. He commanded the Highland Brigade at Balaclava in the Crimean War and, as commander‐in‐chief during the Indian Mutiny, raised the siege of Lucknow and captured Cawnpore. KCB (1849), Baron (1858).
Campbell, John, 1st Baron Campbell (1779–1861) Scottish lawyer and politician. He was called to the Bar in 1806 and entered Parliament as member for Stafford in 1830. He supported Lord John Russell's first Reform Bill, and in 1832 was appointed solicitor‐general. He represented Dudley (1832–34), he was later elected as a candidate for Edinburgh. In 1840, as attorney‐general, he prosecuted Chartists for high treason, and in 1841 he became chancellor of Ireland. He resigned the chancellorship a few weeks later, and devoted his leisure to writing The Lives of
Page111 the Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal (1845–69). Campbell was born in Fife, Scotland.
Campbell‐Bannerman, Henry (1836–1908) British Liberal politician, prime minister 1905–08, leader of the Liberal party 1898–1908. The Entente Cordiale was broadened to embrace Russia during his premiership, which also saw the granting of 'responsible government' to the Boer republics in southern Africa. He was succeeded as prime minister and Liberal leader by H H Asquith, who had effectively led the House during Campbell‐Bannermann's premiership, as the latter was dogged by ill health. Henry Campbell‐Bannerman British Liberal prime minister 'I am a great believer in bed, in constantly keeping horizontal – the heart and everything else go slower, and the whole system is refreshed.' [Letter to Mrs Whiteley 11 September 1906]
Campion, Edmund (1540–1581) English Jesuit and Roman Catholic martyr. He became a Jesuit in Rome in 1573 and in 1580 was sent to England as a missionary. He was betrayed as a spy in 1581, imprisoned in the Tower of London, and hanged, drawn, and quartered as a traitor.
Canning, Charles John (1812–1862) (1st Earl Canning) British administrator, son of George Canning and first viceroy of India from 1858. As governor general of India from 1856, he suppressed the Indian Mutiny with a fair but firm hand which earned him the nickname 'Clemency Canning'. Viscount (1837), Earl (1859). Charles John Canning British administrator, first viceroy of India 'In our Indian empire (peace) depends upon a greater variety of chances and a more precarious tenure than in any other quarter of the globe.' [Speech at a banquet given by the court of directors of the East India Company in his honour before his departure to be governor‐general of India, 1856]
Canning, George (1770–1827) British Tory politician, foreign secretary 1807–10 and 1822–27, and prime minister in 1827 in coalition with the Whigs. He was largely responsible, during the Napoleonic Wars, for the seizure of the Danish fleet and British intervention in the Spanish peninsula.
Page112 Canning
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
George Canning, British Tory politician and prime minister for four months during 1827. He resigned as foreign secretary in 1809 after blaming his colleague Viscount Castlereagh, Secretary of War, for two British defeats. The two men fought a duel on Wimbledon Common to settle the matter, during which Canning was wounded in the thigh. George Canning British Tory prime minister 'A sudden thought strikes me, let us swear an eternal friendship.' [The Rovers]
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George Canning British Tory prime minister 'Contemplating Spain as our ancestors had known her, I resolved that if France had Spain, it should not be Spain with the Indies. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the old.' [Speech in the House of Commons 1826, explaining British intervention in Spain] George Canning British Tory prime minister 'Save me, oh, save me from the candid friend.' [New Morality] Lady Morgan English aristocrat 'His absorbing idea was to be the political Atlas of England, to raise her on his shoulders.' [On George Canning, in her Diary, August 1827]
Canning, Stratford (1786–1880) (1st Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe) British nobleman and diplomat. He negotiated the treaty of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey 1812 and helped establish a federal government in Switzerland 1815. He was minister to the USA 1820–23 and ambassador in Constantinople 1825–28, 1831, and 1842–58. GCB 1828, Viscount 1852.
Canterbury ((Old English Cantwarabyrig'fortress of the men of Kent')) historic cathedral city in Kent, southeast England, on the River Stour, 100 km/62 mi southeast of London; population (2001 est) 135,400. The city is the centre of the Anglican community and seat of the archbishop of Canterbury. It is a popular tourist destination. Paper, paper products, and electrical goods are manufactured here. The public sector is the biggest employer in the city, largely due to the presence of two universities (Canterbury Christ Church University College (1962) and the University of Kent at Canterbury (1965)), a further education college, and an art college. history Canterbury was the site of the Roman town Durovernum Cantiacorum. Situated on Watling Street, the Roman road
Page114 between Dover and London, it was an important fortress and military station. Damage caused by World War II bombing raids and subsequent demolition revealed numerous Roman building works, including baths, streets, walls, and theatres. It is believed that a settlement was maintained from Roman times until the Saxon period, and in the 6th century the town, which was then known as Cantwarabyrig, was the capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent. St Augustine, sent from Rome to convert England to Christianity, was welcomed by him in Canterbury in 597. The shrine of English archbishop and politician St Thomas à Becket, who was murdered in the cathedral, was an important centre of pilgrimage until the Reformation.
Canterbury Cathedral cathedral in Canterbury, Kent, England. It is in the form of a double cross, with a central and two west towers. The total length is 160 m/525 ft, the east transept measuring 47 m/154 ft. The finest work of four centuries of medieval English architecture, from Norman to Perpendicular, is represented in the building. It is difficult to say how many churches have previously stood on the site of the present cathedral, though Bede mentions that St Augustine 'recovered' a church at Canterbury which had been built during the Roman occupation. Certainly a great fire in 1067 caused Archbishop Lanfranc (1070–93) to rebuild the church then existing.
Canterbury Tales, The unfinished collection of stories in prose and verse (c. 1387) by Geoffrey Chaucer, told in Middle English by a group of pilgrims on their way to Thomas à Becket's tomb at Canterbury. The tales and preludes are remarkable for their vivid character portrayal and colloquial language, and they were a major influence on the development of English literature. Each of the thirty or so pilgrims was meant to tell two stories on the way, and two on the return journey. Though it comprises 17,000 lines of prose and verse, including prologues and epilogues, the 24 stories only constitute less than a fifth of the projected work, which was never put into any proper order. They range from the romance of the 'Knight's Tale' to the mock heroism of the 'Nun's Priest's Tale' (a lesson against vanity), the comedy of the 'Merchant's Tale', and the bawdy humour of the 'Miller's Tale'.
Canute (or Cnut or Knut) (c. 995–1035) (also known as Canute the Great) King of England from 1016, Denmark from 1018, and Norway from 1028. Having invaded England in 1013 with his father, Sweyn, king of Denmark, he was acclaimed king on Sweyn's death in 1014 by his Viking army. Canute defeated Edmund (II) Ironside at Assandun, Essex, in 1016, and became king of all England on Edmund's death. He succeeded his brother Harold as king of Denmark in 1018, compelled King Malcolm to pay homage by invading Scotland in about 1027, and conquered Norway in 1028. He was succeeded by his illegitimate son Harold I. Under Canute's rule English trade improved, and he gained favour with his English subjects by sending soldiers back to Denmark. The legend of Canute disenchanting his flattering courtiers by showing that the sea would not retreat at his command was first told by Henry of Huntingdon in 1130.
Page115 Canute King of England, Denmark, and Norway 'Sea, I command thee that thou touch not my feet!' [When he failed to stay the waves, quoted in William Camden Remains Concerning Britain]
Caractacus (died c. 54) British chieftain who headed resistance to the Romans in southeast England from AD 43 to AD 51, but was defeated on the Welsh border. Shown in Claudius's triumphal procession, he was released in tribute to his courage and died in Rome. Caractacus British chieftain 'Preserve my life, and I shall be, to late posterity, a monument of Roman clemency.' [Plea by Caractacus to Emperor Claudius, granted by the Emperor, quoted in Tacitus Annals bks XXXVI, XXXVII]
Caradon, Baron title of Hugh Foot, British Labour politician.
Cardigan, James Thomas Brudenell, 7th Earl of (1797–1868) British cavalry officer. He served in the Crimean War, during which he led the Charge of the Light Brigade at Balaclava 1854.
Cardwell, Edward, 1st Viscount Cardwell (1813–1886) British Liberal politician. He entered Parliament as a supporter of the Conservative prime minister Peel 1842, and became secretary for Ireland (1859–61) in the administration of Lord Palmerston. Under Gladstone, he was secretary for war 1868–74, and instituted an extensive programme of army reforms, including the abolition of the purchase of military commissions and promotions. He was raised to the peerage in 1874 as Viscount Cardwell of Ellerbeck.
Carey, James (1845–1883) Irish Fenian activist, infamous as the informer who betrayed the Phoenix Park murderers. In 1882, a secret society of republican extremists known as the 'Invincibles' stabbed to death the new chief secretary of Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his under‐secretary Thomas Burke, as they walked in Phoenix Park in Dublin. Carey turned 'Queen's evidence' on his associates, and was assassinated shortly after. Carey was born in Dublin, worked as a builder there, and became a town councillor. He joined the Fenians in about 1861, and was a founder‐member of the 'Invincibles' in 1881. After he testified against them, five of the Phoenix Park murderers were hanged, while other conspirators were sentenced to penal servitude. In revenge for his treachery, Carey was shot dead by a
Page116 bricklayer, Patrick O'Donnell.
Caroline of Brunswick (1768–1821) Queen consort of George IV of Great Britain. King George attempted to divorce her, unsuccessfully, on his accession to the throne in 1820. Caroline of Brunswick Queen of George IV of Great Britain 'The King's party and mine are like two rival inns on the road, the George and the Angel.' [Remark made during her final attempt to be accepted as Queen (1821)]
Carpenter, Alfred Francis (1881–1955) British naval captain. Carpenter entered the Royal Navy 1907 and was promoted to commander 1915. He commanded HMS Vindictive in the attack on Zeebrugge April 1918, for which he received the Victoria Cross. He was then promoted to captain and appointed to the Naval Intelligence Department.
Carpenter, Mary (1807–1877) English philanthropist. Her interest in poor children prompted her, in 1835, to start a working and visiting society and later a ragged school with a night school in the poorest part of Bristol, England. She visited India several times, and there she initiated several reforms in the condition of women and children. She wrote many books embodying her schemes for the education of destitute children. Her Juvenile Delinquents led to the passing of the Juvenile Offenders Act in 1854. Carpenter was born in Exeter, England.
Carrington, Dora (de Houghton) (1893–1932) (married name Dora Partridge) English painter, a member of the Bloomsbury Group. She developed a style which, in its emphasis on design and bold colours, is typical of English post‐Impressionism of the period from World War I to the 1930s. Among her best‐known works are an elegant portrait of her close friend, the writer Lytton Strachey (1918), and the landscape The Mill House at Tidmarsh (1918). Her style, broadly similar to that of her Bloomsbury friends Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell, was well suited to the decorative arts, and her work includes sign boards, painted tiles and furniture, and designs for book covers; from around 1914 she worked for several years for Roger Fry's Omega Workshop. Carrington was born in Hereford, and studied at the Slade School of Fine Art, London 1910–14 – then one of the most avant‐garde art schools in England – where she came into contact with artists such as Mark Gertler, who had a marked impact on her development, Paul Nash, and Stanley Spencer. In 1915 she met Lytton Strachey, with whom she lived from 1916, even after her marriage to Ralph Partridge in 1921. She killed herself in 1932 shortly after Strachey died of cancer.
Page117 Dora Carrington English artist 'Yes, it is my work that comes between us, but I cannot put that out of my life because it is too much myself now. If I had not my love of painting I should be a different person.' [Letter to Mark Gertler, 1917]
Carson, Edward Henry (1854–1935) (Baron Carson) Anglo‐Irish politician and lawyer who played a decisive part in the trial of the writer Oscar Wilde. In the years before World War I he led the movement in Ulster to resist Irish home rule by force of arms if need be. He was knighted in 1896, and made a baron in 1921. Educated at Portarlington School and Trinity College Dublin, Carson was one of the leading legal and political figures of his day. He represented the Marquis of Queensbury in the 1895 case that ruined the career of Oscar Wilde, and was solicitor general 1900–06. As leader of the Irish Unionist Party from 1910, he mobilized the resistance of Protestant Ulster to home rule; the threat of armed rebellion against the Liberal government by his 'Ulster Volunteers' effectively wrecked the scheme by 1914. In 1915, he became attorney general in the coalition government and was a member of the war cabinet 1917–18. He resigned as Unionist leader in 1921 and served as a Lord of Appeal 1921–29, and was created a life peer (as Baron Carson of Duncairn) in 1921. Although Carson secured the exclusion of part of Ulster – the 'six counties' – from control by a Dublin parliament, he failed in his goal of preventing self‐government for any part of Ireland. Edward Carson Irish politician and lawyer 'My only great qualification for being put in charge of the Navy is that I am very much at sea.' [H Montgomery Hyde Carson ch. 7, addressing senior Admiralty staff on formation of the Coalition Government 1916]
Carteret, John, 1st Earl Granville (1690–1763) English diplomat and politician; chief adviser to George II 1742–44. Born the second Lord Carteret, a prodigious intellect and linguistic ability marked him out for a diplomatic career. As ambassador to Sweden he helped negotiate an end to the Great Northern War resulting in the Peace of Stockholm 1719. He was appointed one of two foreign secretaries in Robert Walpole's ministry 1721 and attended the negotiations with France at the Congress of Cambrai but he proved a difficult colleague and Walpole moved him to Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 1724, only for him to be reinstated as secretary of state on Walpole's fall later in the year. He led the party opposed to Walpole in the House of Lords 1730–42, when he became the king's chief adviser. As secretary of state during the War of the Austrian Succession, he directed British foreign policy and was with George II at the Battle of Dettingen 1743. George tried to make him prime minister 1746 but he lacked the support necessary to form a ministry.
Page118 Carteret, Sir George (c. 1599–1680) English Royalist politician, a supporter of Charles I and II during the period of parliamentarian rule. He was governor of Jersey 1643–51 and used his native island as a base for harrying parliamentarian ships. The growing maritime strength of parliament forced him into exile in France. At the Restoration he was appointed a Privy Councillor and was a close confidante of Charles II; he become a byword for self‐enrichment through public office. He acquired substantial amounts of territory in the new colonies of North America, in particular Carolina 1663 and New Jersey, which he named after his birthplace, 1664.
Cartwright, Edmund (1743–1823) English inventor. He patented the power loom (1785), built a weaving mill (1787), and patented a wool‐ combing machine (1789).
Casement, Roger David (1864–1916) British diplomat and Irish revolutionary. While in the British consular service, he exposed the ruthless exploitation of the people of the Belgian Congo and Peru, for which he was knighted in 1911 (degraded 1916). He was hanged for treason by the British for his involvement in the Irish nationalist cause. Born in County Dublin, Casement joined the British consular service in 1892. He gained an international reputation and was knighted for his reports on the exploitation of plantation workers by Europeans in the Congo and Peru. However, in 1904 he joined the Gaelic League and upon his retirement in 1913, joined the Irish Volunteers. In 1914 he made his way to Berlin in the hope of raising German support for Irish independence and tried to recruit for an Irish Brigade among British prisoners in Germany. In 1916 he was captured in Ireland, having returned there in a German submarine in the hope of postponing a rebellion. He was sentenced to death and executed as a traitor in August 1916 in spite of appeals for clemency from, among others, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. British government agents circulated details of his diaries, which revealed an active homosexual private life, in the attempt to discredit him. His remains were returned to Ireland in 1965.
Page119 Casement
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page120 Roger Casement appearing at Bow Street magistrates' court charged with treason. A former British diplomat, Casement was an ardent supporter of Irish Home Rule; he was captured off the Irish coast, having disembarked from a German submarine at the start of the Easter Rising in April 1916. Roger Casement Irish nationalist 'It is not necessary to climb the painful stairs of Irish history, that treadmill of a nation whose labours are as vain for her own uplifting as the convict's are for his own redemption.' [At his trial for high treason 1916]
Cassivelaunus Chieftain of the British tribe, the Catuvellauni, who led the British resistance to the Romans under Caesar in 54
BC.
Castanheda, Fernão Lopes de (c. 1500–1559) Portuguese chronicler. He produced a ten‐volume História do descobrimento e conquista da India pelos portugueses/History of the Discovery and Conquest of India by the Portuguese, though only eight volumes were published during his lifetime. The first work of its kind, it was immensely popular and was translated into French, Castilian, Italian, and English. Castanheda stressed his narrative was drawn from personal experience, not hearsay (a veiled reference to João de Barros's chronicle), which drew praise from Barros's successor Diogo do Couto.
Castle, Barbara Anne (1911–2002) (Baroness Castle; born Barbara Betts) British Labour politician; a cabinet minister in the Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s. She led the Labour group in the European Parliament 1979–89 and became a life peer in 1990. Castle was minister of overseas development 1964–65, transport 1965–68, employment 1968–70 (when her White Paper In Place of Strife, on trade‐union reform, was abandoned because it suggested state intervention in industrial relations), and social services 1974–76, when she was dropped from the cabinet by Prime Minister James Callaghan. She criticized him in her Diaries (1980).
Castlemaine, Countess of (1641–1709) (born Barbara Villiers) English mistress of Charles II of England 1660–70 and mother of his son, the Duke of Grafton (1663–1690). A noted society hostess, she was the wife from 1659 of Roger Palmer (1634–1705), who was created Earl of Castlemaine in 1661. She became chief mistress of Charles 1660–70, when she was created Duchess of Cleveland. Among her descendants through the Duke of Grafton is Diana, Princess of Wales; Charles acknowledged five of her seven children as his own.
Page121 Castlereagh, Robert Stewart (1769–1822) (Viscount Castlereagh) British Tory politician. As chief secretary for Ireland 1797–1801, he suppressed the rebellion of 1798 and helped the younger Pitt secure the union of England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1801. As foreign secretary 1812–22, he coordinated European opposition to Napoleon and represented Britain at the Congress of Vienna (1814–15).
Cat and Mouse Act popular name for the Prisoners, Temporary Discharge for Health, Act 1913; an attempt by the UK Liberal government under Herbert Asquith to reduce embarrassment caused by the incarceration of suffragettes accused of violent offences against property.
Catesby, Robert (1573–1605) English conspirator and leader of the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. He took part in the uprising of the 2nd Earl of Essex in 1601 and was an accomplice in the plot of 1603 to capture James I and force religious concessions from him. He was killed resisting arrest following the failure of the Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament.
Catherine of Aragón (1485–1536) First queen of Henry VIII of England, 1509–33, and mother of Mary I. Catherine had married Henry's elder brother Prince Arthur in 1501 and on his death in 1502 was betrothed to Henry, marrying him on his accession. She failed to produce a male heir and Henry divorced her without papal approval, thus creating the basis for the English Reformation. Born at Alcalá de Henares, she was the youngest daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. After Prince Arthur's death, Catherine remained in England, virtually penniless, until her marriage to Henry in 1509. Of their six children, only Mary survived infancy. Wanting a male heir, Henry sought an annulment in 1526 when Catherine was too old to bear children. When the pope demanded that the case be referred to him, Henry married Anne Boleyn, afterwards receiving the desired decree of nullity from Thomas Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury, in 1533. The Reformation in England followed, and Catherine went into retirement until her death. Catherine of Aragón Wife of Henry VIII 'I have done England little good, but I should be sorry to do it any harm.' [Attributed] Catherine of Aragon Queen of England 'The hour of my death approaching ... I cannot choose, but out of love I bear you, advise you of your soul's health which you ought to prefer before all considerations of the world or flesh whatsoever. For which yet you have cast me into many calamities, and yourself into many troubles ... Lastly, I make this vow, that mine eyes desire you above all things. Farewell.' [Letter to Henry VIII, written on her deathbed 5 January 1536]
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Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705) Queen of Charles II of England (1662–85). Her childlessness and Catholic faith were unpopular, but Charles resisted pressure for divorce. She was instrumental in Charles II's return to Catholicism on his deathbed. After his death in 1692, she returned to Lisbon. The daughter of John IV of Portugal (1604–1656), she brought the Portuguese possessions of Bombay and Tangier as her dowry and introduced tea drinking and citrus fruits to England.
Catherine of Valois (1401–1437) Queen of Henry V of England, whom she married in 1420; the mother of Henry VI. After the death of Henry V, she secretly married Owen Tudor (c. 1400–1461) about 1425, and their son Edmund Tudor was the father of Henry VII.
Catholic Emancipation in British history, acts of Parliament passed between 1780 and 1829 to relieve Roman Catholics of civil and political restrictions imposed from the time of Henry VIII and the Reformation.
Cato Street Conspiracy in British history, unsuccessful plot hatched in Cato Street, London, to murder the Tory foreign secretary Robert Castlereagh and all his ministers on 20 February 1820. The leader, the Radical Arthur Thistlewood (1770–1820), who intended to set up a provisional government, was hanged with four others.
Cattle Acts in Irish history, protectionist legislation passed by the English Parliament in 1663, 1667, 1671, and 1681, giving effect to a total prohibition of imports of Irish cattle, beef, pork, and bacon into England. Once interpreted as part of a deliberate English policy to destroy the Irish economy, the legislation is now seen as a reflection of the influence of specific agricultural and commercial interest groups within the English Parliament. The legislation damaged the Irish economy but not fatally, encouraging greater development in the Irish butter and salted meat export market to Europe and the British colonies. The acts were repealed 1758–59.
Catuvellauni leading southern British tribe of the time of the Roman invasions under Caesar and Claudius, with a fortified stronghold at what is now Wheathampstead, Hertfordshire. Cassivelaunus, Cymbeline, and his son Caractacus were kings of the Catuvellauni.
cavalier horseman of noble birth, but mainly used as a derogatory nickname to describe a male supporter of Charles I in the English Civil War (Cavalier), typically with courtly dress and long hair (as distinct from a Roundhead); also a supporter of Charles II after the Restoration.
Cavell, Edith (Louisa) (1865–1915) English nurse. As matron of a Red Cross hospital in
Page123 Brussels, Belgium, in World War I, she helped Allied soldiers escape to the Dutch frontier. She was court‐martialled by the Germans and condemned to death. The British government made much propaganda from her heroism and execution, which was cited as an example of German atrocities. Edith Cavell English hospital matron in World War I 'I realize that patriotism is not enough. I must have no hatred or bitterness towards any one.' [Last words 12 October 1915, quoted in The Times 23 October 1915]
Cavendish, Lord Frederick Charles (1836–1882) British administrator, second son of the 7th Duke of Devonshire. He was appointed by Gladstone as chief secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1882. On the evening of his arrival in Dublin, he and Thomas Burke, the permanent Irish undersecretary, were murdered in Phoenix Park by members of the Irish Invincibles, a secret group of Fenian extremists founded the previous year. The murder had far‐reaching political consequences for Ireland.
Cavendish, Spencer British politician; see Spencer Compton Cavendish Hartington.
Cavendish, William (1720–1764) (4th Duke of Devonshire) British Whig politician, prime minister and First Lord of the Treasury 1756–57. His appointment was chiefly a convenience to secure the services of William Pitt the Elder as secretary of war, and when by mismanagement he lost the support of Pitt, he was forced to resign. career Cavendish's career was a classic example of the importance of patronage and family connections in the way British politics was conducted at this time. He entered the House of Lords in 1754, becoming a privy councillor and Master of the Horse, and being appointed to the key position of Lord Lieutenant to Ireland. In that post he made important friends and appeased hostile factions. He ended his political career as Lord Chamberlain of the royal household 1757–62.
Cawley, William (1602–1666) English republican politician. He was an active member of the Long Parliament and was one of the judges who condemned Charles I to death 1649. Excluded from pardon on the Restoration of the monarchy 1660, Cawley fled to Flanders and then to Switzerland.
Cecil, Edgar Algernon Robert (1864–1958) (Viscount Cecil of Chelwood) British lawyer, parliamentarian and cabinet minister, one of the architects of the League of Nations. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1937 for his work with the League.
Page124 Cecil was educated at home until he was 13, and then at Eton and Oxford where he was a renowned debater. He was called to the Bar at the age of 23 in 1887. He married Lady Eleanor Lambton in 1889. He then turned to politics, representing East Marylebone in the House of Commons from 1906 to 1910, then as an independent Conservative in 1911 as member of Parliament for Hitchin in Hertfordshire. He remained in the Commons until 1923.
Cecil, Robert (1563–1612) (1st Earl of Salisbury) Secretary of state to Elizabeth I of England, succeeding his father, Lord Burghley; he was afterwards chief minister to James I (James VI of Scotland) whose accession to the English throne he secured. He discovered the Gunpowder Plot, the conspiracy to blow up the king and Parliament in 1605. James I created him Earl of Salisbury in 1605. He was knighted in 1591, and made a baron in 1603 and viscount in 1604. Robert Cecil 1st Earl of Salisbury 'As long as any matter of what weight soever is handled only between the Prince and the Secretary, those counsels are compared to the mutual affections of two lovers, undiscovered to their friends.' [The State and Dignity of a Secretary of State's Place 1642]
Cecil, William see Burghley, William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley.
Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) military alliance that replaced the Baghdad Pact in 1959; it collapsed when the withdrawal of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey in 1979 left the UK as the only member.
ceorl freeman of the lowest class in Anglo‐Saxon England.
Cerdic Saxon king of Wessex. He is said to have come to Britain about AD 495, landing near Southampton. He defeated the British in Hampshire and founded Wessex about AD 500, conquering the Isle of Wight about AD 530. As Cedric the Saxon, he is one of the main characters in Sir Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe 1819.
Chadwick, Edwin (1800–1890) English social reformer, author of the Poor Law Report 1834. He played a prominent part in the campaign that resulted in the Public Health Act 1848. He was commissioner of the first Board of Health 1848–54. Knighted 1889. A self‐educated protégé of the philosopher Jeremy Bentham and advocate of utilitarianism, Chadwick used his
Page125 influence to implement measures to eradicate cholera, improve sanitation in urban areas, and clear slums in British cities.
Chadwick, Helen (1953–1996) English photographer, installation, and performance artist. Her work, often autobiographical, tended to question stereotypical attitudes in society, particularly her series of meat abstracts such as Enfleshings 1 (1989) and her portrayal of the body, which was open to many differing interpretations. Her suggestive Cacao (1994) was a fountain of molten chocolate. In 1987 she had material shortlisted for the Turner Prize. Chadwick was born in Croydon, London. After studying at Brighton Polytechnic and Chelsea School of Art, she lectured at Chelsea and at the Royal College, London. She employed a wide range of creative disciplines, including sculpture, photography, mixed media, installation, and performance art. Her work is represented in national and international collections, including the Tate Gallery, the Victoria and Albert Museum, and Birmingham Art Gallery. In 1995 she was the subject of a solo show at the Museum of Modern Art, New York.
Chain, Ernst Boris (1906–1979) German‐born British biochemist who was awarded a Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1945, together with Alexander Fleming and Howard Florey (Fleming for his discovery of the bactericidal effect of penicillin, and Chain and Florey for their isolation of penicillin and its development as an antibiotic drug). Chain also discovered penicillinase, an enzyme that destroys penicillin. Chain was knighted in 1969.
Chain Home system of radar stations built around the east and south coasts of the UK 1938–39 to give early warning of German air attacks.
chamberlain officer appointed by a king, nobleman, or corporation to perform domestic and ceremonial duties. In England the office of chamberlain at the royal court dates from very early times; the chamberlain was originally the financial officer of the royal household. He no longer has any governmental responsibilities, but remains chief officer of the royal household.
Chamberlain, (Arthur) Neville (1869–1940) British Conservative politician, son of Joseph Chamberlain. He was prime minister 1937–40; his policy of appeasement toward the Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini and German Nazi Adolf Hitler (with whom he concluded the Munich Agreement in 1938) failed to prevent the outbreak of World War II. He resigned in 1940 following the defeat of the British forces in Norway. Neville Chamberlain British Conservative politician 'How horrible, fantastic, incredible it is that we should be digging trenches and trying on gas‐masks here because of a quarrel in a far‐ away country between people of whom we know nothing.' [Referring to the German threat to Czechoslovakia. Speech on BBC Radio 27 September 1938, two days before he met Hitler in Munich]
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Neville Chamberlain British Conservative politician 'In war, whichever side may call itself the victor, there are no winners, but all are losers.' [Speech at Kettering, 3 July 1938] Neville Chamberlain British Conservative politician 'Peace with honour. I believe it is peace for our time.' [Speech from 10 Downing Street 30 September 1938] Neville Chamberlain British Conservative politician 'We should seek by all means in our power to avoid war, by analysing possible causes, by trying to remove them, by discussion in a spirit of collaboration and good will. I cannot believe that such a programme would be rejected by the people of this country.' [Speech in the House of Commons 31 March 1938] A J P Taylor English historian 'He was a meticulous housemaid, great at tidying up.' [Referring to Neville Chamberlain English History 1916–1945]
Chamberlain, (Joseph) Austen (1863–1937) British Conservative politician, elder son of Joseph Chamberlain; foreign secretary 1924–29. He shared the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1925 with Charles G Dawes for his work in negotiating and signing the Pact of Locarno, which fixed the boundaries of Germany. In 1928 he also signed the Kellogg–Briand pact to outlaw war and provide for peaceful settlement of disputes.
Page127 Chamberlain, Joseph (1836–1914) British politician, reformist mayor of and member of Parliament for Birmingham. In 1886 he resigned from the cabinet over William Gladstone's policy of home rule for Ireland, and led the revolt of the Liberal‐Unionists that saw them merge with the Conservative Party. Joseph Chamberlain British Conservative politician 'Lord Salisbury constitutes himself the spokesman of a class, of the class to which he himself belongs, who 'toil not neither do they spin'.' [Speech March 1883] Joseph Chamberlain British Conservative politician 'The day of small nations has long passed away. The day of Empires has come.' [Speech in Birmingham, 12 May 1904] Joseph Chamberlain British Conservative politician 'They see me sitting on the Terrace with a big cigar, and they think me lazy, but when I go back to the Office, I make things hum.' [Quoted in J L Garvin, Life of Joseph Chamberlain] Hercules Robinson British politician 'Dangerous as an enemy, untrustworthy as a friend, but lethal as a colleague.' [On Joseph Chamberlain. Quoted in Elizabeth Longford, Jameson's Raid]
Chandos English family that claims descent from a follower of William the Conqueror. Charles Chandos (died 1428) was the last representative in the direct male line, but the name has continued through the female line.
Page128 Chandos, Oliver Lyttelton, 1st Viscount Chandos (1893–1972) English industrialist and Conservative politician. He was president of the Board of Trade 1940–41, minister of state in the Middle East 1941–42, minister of production 1942–45, and secretary of state for the colonies 1951–54. He was created Viscount Chandos in 1954.
Charge of the Light Brigade disastrous attack by the British Light Brigade of cavalry against the Russian entrenched artillery on 25 October 1854 during the Crimean War at the Battle of Balaclava. Of the 673 soldiers who took part, there were 272 casualties.
charity schools schools for the poor founded by the Society for the Promoting of Christian Knowledge from the late 17th century onward. They were criticized in the early 18th century for allegedly instilling High Church propaganda in their pupils and overeducating the poor. Until the 19th century, these locally run schools were often the only means for poor children to acquire basic numeracy and literacy.
Charles two kings of Great Britain and Ireland:
Charles I (1600–1649) King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1625, son of James I of England (James VI of Scotland). He accepted the petition of right in 1628 but then dissolved Parliament and ruled without a parliament from 1629 to 1640, a period known as the Eleven Years' Tyranny. His advisers were Strafford and Laud, who persecuted the Puritans and provoked the Scots to revolt. The Short Parliament, summoned in 1640, refused funds, and the Long Parliament later that year rebelled. Charles declared war on Parliament in 1642 but surrendered in 1646 and was beheaded in 1649. He was the father of Charles II.
Page129 Charles I
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page130 A contemporary engraving of the trial of Charles I at Westminster Hall in January 1649. He was accused of having 'conceived a wicked design .. to overthrow the rights and liberties of the people'. The trial began on 20 January and ended eight days later when the king was sentenced to death. Charles I King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1625 'As a Christian, I must tell you that God will not suffer Rebels and Traytors to prosper nor his Cause to be overthrown.' [Letter to Prince Rupert 1645] Charles I King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1625 'I die a Christian, according to the Profession of the Church of England, as I found it left to me by my Father.' [Speech on the scaffold]
Charles II (1630–1685) King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1660, when Parliament accepted the restoration of the monarchy after the collapse of Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth. He was the son of Charles I. His chief minister Edward Clarendon, who arranged Charles's marriage in 1662 to Catherine of Braganza, was replaced in 1667 with the Cabal of advisers. His plans to restore Catholicism in Britain led to war with the Netherlands (1672–74) in support of Louis XIV of France and a break with Parliament, which he dissolved in 1681. He was succeeded by James II.
Page131 Charles II
(Image © Billie Love)
Page132 King Charles II of Great Britain and Ireland, in a portrait from 1680. In the following year, he dissolved Parliament and ruled without it, financed by Louis XIV of France. Charles II King of Great Britain, 1660–85 'Let not poor Nelly starve.' [Quoted in Gilbert Burnet, History of My Own Time] Charles II King of Great Britain 1660–85 'He had been, he said, an unconscionable time dying; but he hoped that they would excuse it.' [T B Macaulay History of England] Charles II King of Great Britain 1660–85 'That is very true: for my words are my own, and my actions are my ministers'.' [Reply to Lord Rochester's Epitaph on him] Charles II British Whig politician 'If I do not take his life, he will soon have mine.' [On William Russell, showing no mercy in 1683]
Charles Edward Stuart (1720–1788) (also known as the Young Pretender or Bonnie Prince Charlie) British prince, grandson of James II and son of James, the Old Pretender. In the
Page133 Jacobite rebellion of 1745 (the Forty‐Five) Charles won the support of the Scottish Highlanders; his army invaded England to claim the throne but was beaten back by the Duke of Cumberland and routed at Culloden on 16 April 1746. Charles fled; for five months he wandered through the Highlands with a price of £30,000 on his head before escaping to France. He visited England secretly in 1750, and may have made other visits. In later life he degenerated into a friendless drunkard. He settled in Italy in 1766. Charles Edward Stuart British prince 'I am come home, sir, and I will entertain no notion at all of returning to that place whence I came, for I am persuaded my faithful Highlanders will stand by me.' [Attributedremark on landing at Moindart 1745] Charles Edward Stuart British prince 'The wretched today be happy tomorrow. All great men would be the better to feel a little of what I do.' [After defeat at Culloden 1746, quoted in James Hogg The Jacobite Relics of Scotland 359]
Charles Fort large, star‐shaped fort named after King Charles II, at Kinsale, County Cork, Republic of Ireland. It was designed by William Robinson and built from 1678 for Roger Boyle, Earl of Orrery. It is probably the finest example of surviving military architecture in Ireland. The only time it was besieged was in 1690, when it held out for 13 days before being was captured by John Churchill, Earl of Marlborough. It became a scheduled national monument in 1973.
Charrington, Frederick Nicholas (1850–1936) English social reformer. He renounced succession to a fortune of over £1 million in order to devote his time to temperance work. He founded the Tower Hamlets Mission in 1885 and made the Great Assembly Hall in the Mile End Road a centre of Christian work in the East End of London. He was one of the original members of the London County Council (1889–95). The son of a wealthy brewer, Charrington was born in London, England.
charter open letter recording that a grant of land or privileges had been made on a specific date, as in the Magna Carta. Witnesses either signed, made their mark, or affixed their seal. Based on the Roman diploma, the charter was reintroduced into Britain after the departure of the Romans to record donations of land to the Christian Church. These early charters were written in Latin, but from the 9th century charters were written in the vernacular; Latin again came into use after the Norman Conquest.
Page134 charters, town royal grants of certain privileges, rights, or immunities made to towns from early times.
Chartism radical British democratic movement, mainly of the working classes, which flourished around 1838 to 1848. It derived its name from the People's Charter, a six‐point programme comprising universal male suffrage, equal electoral districts, secret ballot, annual parliaments, and abolition of the property qualification for, and payment of, members of Parliament. The movement grew out of the London Working Men's Association, formed in 1836 by William Lovett. Two petitions were presented to Parliament (in 1839 and 1842), and were rejected. Under the leadership of the Irish parliamentarian Fergus O'Connor, Chartism became a powerful expression of working class frustration, and a third petition, also rejected, was presented in 1848. The long‐term failure of the movement was probably due to greater prosperity among the populace as a whole, lack of organization, and rivalry among the leadership of the movement.
Chaucer, Geoffrey (c. 1340–1400) English poet. The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, reveals his knowledge of human nature and his stylistic variety, from the sophisticated and subtly humorous to the simple and bawdy. His early work shows formal French influence, as in the dream‐poem The Book of the Duchess and his adaptation of the French allegorical poem on courtly love, The Romaunt of the Rose, in which the meaning is conveyed in symbols. More mature works reflect the influence of Italian realism, as in Troilus and Criseyde, a substantial narrative poem about the tragic betrayal of an idealized courtly love, adapted from the Italian writer Boccaccio. In The Canterbury Tales he shows his own genius for metre (rhythm) and characterization. Chaucer was the most influential English poet of the Middle Ages. Chaucer was born in London, the son of a wine dealer. Taken prisoner in the French wars, he had to be ransomed by Edward III in 1360. In 1366 he married Philippa Roet, sister of Katherine Swynford, the mistress and later third wife of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. Payments during the period 1367–74 indicate a rising fortune and show that Chaucer made several journeys abroad, both on military service and public business. He was sent to Italy (where he may have met the writers Boccaccio and Petrarch), France, and Flanders. He was controller of wool customs (1374–86), and of petty customs (1382–86). He became justice of the peace for Kent in 1385 and member of Parliament for Kent in 1386. In 1389 he was made clerk of the king's works, and superintended undertakings at Woolwich and Smithfield. In 1391 he gave up the clerkship and accepted the position of deputy forester of North Petherton, Somerset. Late in 1399 he moved to Westminster and died the following year; he was buried in the Poets' Corner of Westminster Abbey.
Page135 Chaucer
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page136 A portrait of the English poet Geoffrey Chaucer on horseback. Chaucer was born in London, and travelled widely in France, and in Italy, where he was possibly influenced by the writers Boccaccio and Petrarch. Chaucer
(Image © Billie Love)
English poet Geoffrey Chaucer, best known for The Canterbury Tales. Chaucer was also active as a diplomat and civil servant for several English kings, holding posts such as comptroller in the Customs House, and justice of the peace and knight of the shire in Kent.
Page137 Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'A Clerk ther was of Oxenford also.' [Canterbury Tales, Prologue] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'For ever it was, and ever it shall befal, / That Love is he that alle thing may bind.' [Troilus and Criseyde bk 1] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'For pitee renneth sone in gentil herte.' [Canterbury Tales, 'The Knightes Tale'] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'Go, litel book, go litel myn tragedie.' [Troilus and Criseyde] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'He was a verray parfit gentil knight.' [Canterbury Tales, Prologue]
Page138 Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'Love is noght oold as whan that it is newe.' [Canterbury Tales, 'Clerk's Tale'] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'Servant in love, and lord in marriage.' [Canterbury Tales, 'Franklin's Tale'] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'She was a worthy womman al hir lyve, / Housbondes at chirche‐dore she hadde fyve, / Withouten other companye in youthe.' [Canterbury Tales, Prologue] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'So was hir joly whistle wel y‐wet.' [Canterbury Tales, 'The Reve's Tale'] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'The lyf so short, the craft so long to lerne, / Thassay so hard, so sharp the conquering.' [The Parlement of Foules translation of an aphorism of Hippocrates]
Page139 Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'Whan that the month of May. / Is comen, and that I here the foules singe, / And that the floures ginnen for to springe, / Farwel my book and my devocion.' [Legend of Good Women, Prologue] Geoffrey Chaucer English poet 'Whanne that Aprille with his shoures sote / The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote.' [Canterbury Tales, Prologue]
Chaucer, Thomas (c. 1367–1434) English statesman, possibly the son of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer. He represented his Oxfordshire estates in numerous parliaments and was Speaker of the House of Commons in 1407, 1410, 1411, and 1414. He also served on several diplomatic missions.
Cheapside ((Old English ceap, 'barter')) street running from St Paul's Cathedral to Poultry, in the City of London, England. Now a business district, it was the scene of the 13th‐century 'Cheap', a permanent fair and chief general market in the city. The church of St Mary‐le‐Bow in Cheapside, designed by Christopher Wren, has the Bow Bells.
Chesterfield title formerly borne by the English family of Stanhope, later Scudamore‐Stanhope, created in 1628.
Chetwode, Philip Walhouse, 1st Baron Chetwode (1869–1950) British soldier. Chetwode entered the 19th Hussars 1889, and served in Burma and South Africa. He commanded the 5th cavalry brigade in action against the Germans before Mons 1914. In 1916 he went to Egypt to assume command of the desert mounted column of the Egyptian expeditionary force, which he led in the early campaigns in Palestine.
Cheyne, John (1777–1836) Scottish physician who, with William Stokes, gave his name to Cheyne–Stokes breathing, or periodic respiration.
Cheyne, William Watson (1852–1932) Australian‐born British surgeon. He was assistant surgeon and later surgeon to King's College Hospital (1880–1917), before becoming a professor of surgery there (1891–1917). Cheyne was a staunch advocate of the antiseptic principles introduced by English surgeon Joseph Lister. His principal works include Antiseptic Surgery (1882), Tuberculous Diseases of Bones and Joints (1895), and the
Page140 seven‐volume Manual of Surgical Treatment (1899–1903), coauthored with F Burghard. Cheyne was born at sea off Hobart, Tasmania, Australia. He graduated in medicine at Edinburgh University in 1875, and became house surgeon to Joseph Lister, first in Edinburgh and later at King's College Hospital, London. He became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1879, subsequently becoming Hunterian professor (1888–90), then president (1914–16); he was awarded the college's Lister Memorial Medal in 1924. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1894. He was made a baronet in 1908 on becoming surgeon‐in‐ ordinary to King Edward VII. He was member of Parliament for the Universities of Edinburgh and St Andrews (1917) and for the Scottish universities (1918–22). Among his other publications are Suppuration and Septic Diseases (1889), Treatment of Wounds, Ulcers and Abscesses (1894), and Lister and his Achievement (1925).
Chick, Harriette (1875–1977) English nutritionist. While investigating nutritional disorders in Vienna after World War I she helped to establish that sunlight and dietary cod‐liver oil, rich in vitamin D, could eliminate childhood rickets, a bone deficiency previously thought to be infectious. On her return to London in 1922 she made extensive studies into the role of vitamins. She was made DBE in 1949. Chick was sent to Vienna by the British Medical Research Council (MRC), and conducted her pioneering research into rickets with her colleague Elsie Dalyell (1881–1948). She later served as secretary of the Accessory Food Factors Committee, established by the MRC and the Lister Institute, which co‐ordinated, assessed, and publicized research and information on nutritional matters.
Chieftains, the Irish folk group. Long regarded as leading exponents of Irish traditional music, the Chieftains were formed in the early 1960s. Over the years, they have worked with a wide variety of musicians from different backgrounds, and remain a major concert attraction. Membership of the band has varied, but key players include Uillean piper Paddy Moloney (1938–), harpist Derek Bell (1935–), and flautist Matt Molloy (1947–). The original Chieftains met while playing as members of Seán Ó Riada's Ceoltóirí Cualann orchestra in the late 1950s. Though they began performing together on an amateur basis, their music was so well received that they turned professional in the early 1970s. They have recorded with such diverse artists as Mike Oldfield (1953–), Van Morrison, and James Galway, and their music has been widely used on film soundtracks. The Chieftains influenced later Irish folk‐rock bands such as Planxty, the Bothy Band, and De Danaan. They have attained spectacular international success with their later fusion recordings and since 1993 they have won many international awards, including several Grammy awards in 1994, 1996, and 1997.
Childers, (Robert) Erskine (1870–1922) English civil servant and writer, Irish republican, author of the spy novel The Riddle of the Sands (1903). A Londoner by birth and educated at Haileybury and Cambridge, Childers served as Clerk of the House of Commons, 1895–1910, and published Riddle of the Sands in 1903. He converted to Irish home rule in 1908, and it was aboard his yacht the Asgard that arms were landed for the Irish Volunteers in 1914. He served with the Royal Navy Air Services from 1914–19, yet his support for home rule hardened into a severe republicanism. He was appointed director of publicity for the IRA in 1919 and, elected to the Dáil (then the unofficial republican parliament) in 1921, became
Page141 its minister for propaganda. Childers served as first secretary to the Irish delegation in negotiations with the British government in 1921, but opposed the treaty that his colleagues agreed with the British. He fought with the republicans in the 1922 civil war, and was captured, court‐martialled and executed by the Free State government.
Childers, Erskine H(amilton) (1905–1974) Irish Fianna Fáil politician, president 1973–74. He sought the reunification of Ireland, but condemned the campaign of violence by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) to achieve that end. He was a strong advocate of Ireland's membership of the European Community (EC; now the European Union). Although, after entering Irish politics in 1938, he held a number of ministerial posts and was elected deputy leader of the Fianna Fáil party in 1969, he was always in the shadow of his famous father, Robert Erskine Childers, a leading figure in the struggle for Irish independence.
Childers, Hugh Culling Eardley (1827–1896) English Liberal politician. As secretary for war 1880–82 he was responsible for the military operations in the first South African War in 1881 and the Egyptian expedition to subdue a nationalist revolt in 1882. He was chancellor of the Exchequer 1882–85 and home secretary in 1886.
Chilianwala, Battle of battle between British and Sikh forces during the Second Sikh War 13 January 1849. Although the British eventually recovered the situation and were not actually defeated, their organization was confused to the point of disaster and this episode may be regarded almost as the infantry equivalent of the more famed Charge of the Light Brigade.
Chimney Sweepers Act law passed 1875 in Benjamin Disraeli's second ministry forbidding the use of children to sweep chimneys, partly in response to public outcry at the practice. Earlier attempts by Lord Shaftesbury (in acts of 1840 and 1864) had failed to curb the use of children to clean chimneys. Employers were now forbidden from taking on apprentices under the age of 16 and no one under the age of 21 was permitted to go up a chimney in order to clean it.
Christian Socialism 19th‐century movement stressing the social principles of the Bible and opposed to the untrammelled workings of laissez‐faire capitalism. Its founders, all members of the Church of England, were Frederick Denison Maurice (1805–1872), Charles Kingsley, and the novelist Thomas Hughes. In Europe, the establishment of Christian Socialist parties (the first was in Austria) was a direct response to the perceived threat of socialism and therefore contained many conservative features.
Churchill, Lady Sarah, duchess of Marlborough (1660–1744) Whig wife of John Churchill, the 1st Duke of Marlborough and confidante of Princess (later Queen) Anne. She was in the service of James II from 1673 and developed a long‐standing friendship with his daughter, Anne. After the 'Glorious revolution' 1688 she initially tried to involve Anne in plots against the new king William III but then when Anne became queen, Churchill used her position to
Page142 encourage the queen to favour Whig ministries. By 1707 her influence had been superseded by the Tory, Abigail Masham, and a Tory ministry was appointed 1710. Churchill finally broke with Anne 1711 and lost her positions at court.
Churchill, Lord Randolph Henry Spencer (1849–1895) British Conservative politician, chancellor of the Exchequer and leader of the House of Commons in 1886; father of Winston Churchill. Randolph Churchill British Conservative politician 'The duty of an Opposition is to oppose.' [Quoted in W S Churchill Lord Randolph Churchill vol. 1, ch. 5] Randolph Churchill British Conservative politician 'Ulster will fight; Ulster will be right.' [Letter 1886]
Churchill, Winston (Leonard Spencer) (1874–1965) British Conservative politician, prime minister 1940–45 and 1951–55. In Parliament from 1900, as a Liberal until 1924, he held a number of ministerial offices, including First Lord of the Admiralty 1911–15 and chancellor of the Exchequer 1924–29. Absent from the cabinet in the 1930s, he returned in September 1939 to lead a coalition government from 1940 to 1945, negotiating with Allied leaders in World War II to achieve the unconditional surrender of Germany in 1945. He led a Conservative government between 1951 and 1955. His books include a six‐volume history of World War II (1948–54) and a four‐volume History of the English‐Speaking Peoples (1956–58). War Speeches 1940–45 (1946) contains his most memorable orations. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953.
Page143 Churchill
(Image © Billie Love)
Page144 Ceremony at Bristol University, England, on 21 April 1945. From left to right: Ernest Bevin, Minister of Labour; Winston Churchill, Prime Minister; A V Alexander, First Lord of the Admiralty. Churchill was Chancellor of the university from 1929 until his death. Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister '[Political skill] is the ability to foretell what is going to happen tomorrow, next week, next month, and next year. And to have the ability afterwards to explain why it didn't happen.' [The Churchill Wit, 1965, edited by Bill Adler] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'A modest man who has a good deal to be modest about.' [Of Clement Attlee, Chicago Sunday Tribune Magazine of Books 27 June 1954] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'Don't talk to me about naval tradition. It's nothing but rum, sodomy and the lash.' [Quoted in Peter Gretton Former Naval Person] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the Continent.' [Speech at Westminster College, Fulton, Missouri 5 March 1946]
Page145 Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'Give us the tools and we will finish the job.' [Speech on radio 9 February 1942] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'I am prepared to meet my Maker. Whether my Maker is prepared for the great ordeal of meeting me is another matter.' [News conference, Washington 1954] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'I have not become the King's First Minister in order to preside over the liquidation of the British Empire.' [Speech in London 10 November 1942] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'In defeat unbeatable: in victory unbearable.' [Of Viscount Montgomery, quoted in Marsh Ambrosia and Small Beer] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'In war: resolution. In defeat: defiance. In victory: magnanimity. In peace: goodwill.' [Second World War, 'Moral of the Work']
Page146 Winston Churchill British Conservative politician 'It cannot be classified as slavery in the extreme acceptance of the word without some risk of terminological inexactitude.' [Hansard 22 February 1906] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'It is a riddle wrapped in a mystery in an enigma, but there is a key. That key is Russian self‐interest.' [Radio broadcast 1 October 1939] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'It may almost be said, 'Before Alamein we never had a victory. After Alamein we never had a defeat.'' [Second World War vol. 4, ch. 33] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'It was the nation and the race dwelling all around the globe that had the lion's heart. I had the luck to be called upon to give the roar.' [On World War II; 80th birthday address to Parliament, 30 November 1954] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.' [Of the British airmen at the battle of Britain, Hansard 20 August 1940]
Page147 Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'Some chicken! Some neck!' [Reply to the French assertion in World War II that 'In three weeks England will have her neck wrung like a chicken', speech to Canadian Parliament 30 December 1942] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'The belief that security can be obtained by throwing a small state to the wolves is a fatal delusion.' [On Czechoslovakia, 21 September 1938] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'The British are unique in this respect: they are the only people who like to be told how bad things are, who like to be told the worst.' [Speech at the Guildhall, 1921] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'The British people have taken for themselves this motto – 'Business carried on as usual during alterations on the map of Europe'.' [Speech at the Guildhall, 9 November 1914] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'The people of London with one voice would say to Hitler: ... You do your worst – and we will do our best.' [Speech at County Hall, London 14 July 1942]
Page148 Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'There is no finer investment for any community than putting milk into babies. Healthy citizens are the greatest asset any country can have.' [Speech on radio 21 March 1943] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'This was their finest hour.' [Hansard 18 June 1940] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'To jaw‐jaw is always better than to war‐war.' [Speech at White House 26 June 1954] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'Nous attendons l'invasion promise de longue date. Les poissons aussi. We are waiting for the long‐promised invasion. So are the fishes.' [Radio broadcast to the French people 21 October 1940] Winston Churchill British Conservative prime minister 'We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be. We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.' [Hansard 4 June 1940]
Page149 Cilian, St (c.640–689) (or St Kilian) Irish apostle. Born at Mullagh in County Cavan, he set off on a mission with Saints Colman and Totnan to bring Christianity to the Germanic tribes of Thuringia and Franconia. He and his companions were executed at Würzburg, Franconia, on the orders of Duke Gozbert. In 752, when the region had finally been Christianized, his relics were interred in the cathedral at Würzburg. His feast day is 8 July.
Cinque Ports group of ports in southern England, originally five, Sandwich, Dover, Hythe, Romney, and Hastings, later including Rye, Winchelsea, and others. Probably founded in Roman times, they rose to importance after the Norman conquest and until the end of the 15th century were bound to supply the ships and men necessary against invasion. Their importance declined in the 16th and 17th centuries with the development of a standing navy.
Citrine, Walter McLennan Citrine, 1st Baron (1887–1983) English trade‐union leader and administrator. He was general secretary of the Trades Union Congress (TUC) 1926–46 and took a leading part in the struggle to secure the repeal of the Trades Dispute Act of 1927. He served on the National Coal Board until 1947 and was president of the Central Electricity Authority 1947–57. He was knighted in 1935 and created a peer in 1946.
Civil War, English conflict between King Charles I and the Royalists (also called Cavaliers) on one side and the Parliamentarians (also called Roundheads) on the other. Their differences centred initially on the king's unconstitutional acts, but later became a struggle over the relative powers of crown and Parliament. Hostilities began in 1642 and a series of Royalist defeats (at Marston Moor in 1644, and then at Naseby in 1645) culminated in Charles's capture in 1647, and execution in 1649. The war continued until the final defeat of Royalist forces at Worcester in 1651. Oliver Cromwell then became Protector (ruler) from 1653 until his death in 1658. causes Charles I became the king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1625, and quickly became involved in a number of disputes with Parliament. These led to the latter's dissolution in 1629, after which Charles ruled absolutely for 11 years, the Eleven Years' Tyranny. By 1639, people had many reasons to be angry with Charles: his belief in the divine right of kings; his spending – Charles was an art collector, and lavished money on his court and his favourites; his creation of monopolies as a form of patronage; his levies of ship money for the support of the navy; and his use of the Star Chamber court to suppress the Puritans and make judgements in his favour. His officials and associates were also unpopular. Strafford, Charles's advisor and lord deputy in Ireland, was using the army to enforce royal rule ruthlessly in Ireland (see Ireland: history 1603–1782, Protestant settlement and the rule of Strafford). The Puritans felt threatened by Charles's deputy, Archbishop William Laud, who had brought Arminianism into the Church of England, new ideas that emphasized links with the pre‐Reformation church. Charles's Catholic wife Henrietta Maria was also disliked, as she encouraged him to aid Catholics and make himself an absolute ruler. In 1639, however, war was declared with Scotland, the first of the Bishops' Wars over Charles's
Page150 attempts to impose royal control over the church in Scotland. In 1640, Charles called the Short Parliament in order to raise funds. His request for war taxes was refused, and the Parliament was quickly dissolved, but, after defeat in Scotland in the second Bishops' War (1640), Charles called the Long Parliament of 1640. The members of Parliament (MPs) were determined (in the words of the leader John Pym) 'to make their country happy by removing all grievances'. The Long Parliament imprisoned Laud, declared extra‐parliamentary taxation illegal, and voted that Parliament could not be dissolved without its own assent. In November 1641 Parliament presented the Grand Remonstrance – a list of complaints. In January 1642 Charles tried to arrest the five parliamentary leaders who, he said, had 'traitorously tried to take away the King's royal power'. When this failed, the king went north to Nottingham, where he declared war against Parliament on 22 August 1642. The World Turned Upside Down: Civil War and Revolution introduction From 1640 to 1660 the British Isles witnessed some of the most dramatic events of their history. In this period, the English, Scottish, and Irish states all experienced major, and interconnected, internal convulsions. Scotland In the late 1630s the Scots rose in armed insurrection to defend their Calvinist, or presbyterian, church against a new 'popish' prayer book which Charles I was attempting to impose. In 1640 the Scots Covenanters defeated Charles's army at Newburn, precipitating the deep political crisis in England which led to civil war in 1642. In 1643 they entered into a military alliance with the English parliamentarians, and Scottish forces contributed much to the defeat of the Royalists. The Scots had assumed that Charles's defeat would be followed by the introduction of a Scottish‐style church in England, but by 1649 the presbyterian English Parliament had lost power to the soldiers of the New Model Army, most of whom firmly rejected the concept of any national church. The Scots then transferred their allegiance, backing the attempts of Charles I and then his son to win back the English crown. They were, however, defeated at Preston (1648), Dunbar (1650), and Worcester (1651) by Cromwell, who then brought all of Lowland Scotland under direct English rule for the first time in its history. In 1654 he forced Scotland into a union with England. While this union was overturned at the Restoration in 1660, the English hegemony it had established ensured that England entered the union of 1707 as much the dominant partner. Ireland In Ireland the mid‐century crisis erupted with the Ulster Rising of 1641, during which several thousand native Catholics rose up against Protestant colonists planted on their lands earlier in the century. The rebellion quickly spread. A provisional Catholic government was set up at Kilkenny, and in 1643 Charles I recognized its authority in exchange for Irish military assistance in England. The recovery of Ireland was entrusted to Cromwell in 1649. Within nine months he broke the back of the rebellion with an efficiency and ruthlessness for which he has never been forgiven by the Irish people. This military reconquest was swiftly followed by the Cromwellian Land Settlement, which ejected most of the Catholic population from their lands and gave them the famous choice of going to 'Hell or Connaught'. These events laid the foundations for the English Protestant Ascendancy. England
Page151 It was in England, however, that the revolutionary nature of the 1640s and 1650s was most apparent. Here a full‐scale civil conflict resulted in the public trial and execution of a king who many still regarded as divinely appointed, the establishment of a republic, and the emergence of a military junta. In the religious sphere, the established national church was dismembered in favour of a large number of unorthodox radical sects, including the Ranters, who encouraged indulgence in alcohol, tobacco, and casual sex, and the Quakers, whose refusal to defer to social superiors made them especially subversive. These 20 years were marked by an extraordinary intellectual ferment. Many English men and women began to espouse very radical solutions to a wide range of social and political problems. The Levellers advocated universal male suffrage. Gerrard Winstanley established a short‐lived commune on St George's Hill near Weybridge, and argued in print for a communist solution to social inequalities. The poet John Milton sought liberal divorce laws, and other writers debated women's rights, polygamy, and vegetarianism. England had fallen into civil war in 1642 for want of a peaceful solution to the serious differences between Charles I and some of his most influential subjects. Some of these differences had been political, but more important was a religious struggle manifested in the opposition of many English Calvinists to a clique of anti‐Calvinists, or Arminians, who (under Charles's patronage) had gained control of the established church in the 1630s. Parliament's victory in the Civil War owed much to the organizational ability of its early leader John Pym, its access to the financial and demographic resources of London, and the creation of the New Model Army in 1645. After his defeat, Charles's own obstinate refusal to settle with his opponents finally drove the leaders of the army to the desperate expedient of regicide. From 1649 to 1660, England remained a military state. Cromwell struggled to reconcile the country to his rule, but failed because of his association with the army in a nation now thoroughly fed up with the military. Moreover, Cromwell and his puritan colleagues considered it their duty to impose their own godly culture on the nation. Initiatives such as the introduction of the death penalty for adultery were met with widespread hostility. In restoring the Stuarts in 1660, the English were decisively rejecting this puritan culture in favour of a world once more turned right way up. W C and R J Sellar and Yeatman English writers 'The utterly memorable Struggle between the Cavaliers (Wrong but Wromantic) and the Roundheads (Right but Repulsive).' [1066 and All That ch. 35] W C and R J Sellar and Yeatman English writers 'With the ascension of Charles I to the throne, we come at last to the Central Period of English History (not to be confused with the Middle Ages, of course), consisting in the utterly memorable Struggle between the Cavaliers (Wrong but Wromantic) and the Roundheads (Right and Repulsive).'
Page152 [1066 and All That, A Memorable History of England (1930)]
Civil War, Irish in Irish history, a conflict, 1922–23, that followed the signing of the Anglo‐Irish Treaty (1921), which established the partition of Ireland into the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland. In June 1922 the Irish government, led by Michael Collins, attacked the headquarters of the anti‐Treaty faction (mostly from the Irish Republican Army (IRA)) at the Four Courts in Dublin. Fighting continued until April 1923, when the IRA gave up the fight. There were over 900 casualties.
claim of right declaration by the Scottish estates in 1689 accompanying their recognition of the new regime of William and Mary following the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688. The declaration asserted the right to depose any monarch who violated the law, listing grievances against James VII and II, as well as denouncing the Lords of the Articles and episcopacy in Scotland.
Clairemont, Claire (1798–1879) English mistress of the poet Lord Byron. Their daughter, Allegra, was born in 1817, but Byron later removed the child as he disapproved of Clairemont's methods of childcare. Allegra died in a convent near Ravenna at the age of five. Clairemont began her affair with Byron in London after accompanying her step‐sister Mary Godwin's elopement with the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in 1814. Following the death of her daughter, she lived abroad for the rest of her life.
Clan‐Na‐Gael secret society formed by Fenians (see Fenian movement) in the USA about 1883. Its object was to force the British government to give home rule to Ireland. The headquarters of the society were in Chicago, but it had agents in England and Ireland, who were responsible for assassinations and bombings in the 1880s.
Clann na Poblachta ((Irish 'Children of the Republic')) former Irish political party founded by Sean MacBride in 1946. Its aims included the reintegration of the whole of Ireland as an independent republic and the restoration of the Irish language. It ceased to exist in 1969.
Clapham sect early 19th‐century evangelical group within the Church of England which advocated paternalist reforms for the underprivileged. Based on Rev. John Venn's church in Clapham between 1792 and 1830, the group consisted largely of liberal‐minded wealthy families and had a profound influence on many of the most prominent social reformers of the time, including William Wilberforce and the Earl of Shaftesbury.
Clare, Richard de (died 1176) (Earl of Pembroke and Striguil; called 'Strongbow')
Page153 Anglo‐Norman soldier. At the request of the exiled king of Leinster, Dermot MacMurrough, he invaded Ireland in August 1170 to support MacMurrough's reinstatement, sparking a full‐scale Anglo‐Norman invasion under Henry II in September 1171. He was forced to hand over his conquests to Henry II but after helping him on campaigns in Normandy in 1173 was granted Wexford, Waterford, and Dublin, the first Anglo‐ Norman lordship. He is buried in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin. Strongbow was the son of Gilbert FitzGilbert de Clare, earl of Pembroke and Strigoil, and succeeded to the earldom in southern Wales in 1148. Having restored MacMurrough, de Clare married his daughter Aoife and inherited the kingship of Leinster on MacMurrough's death in 1171. His success forced the invasion of Henry II, who was fearful of the establishment of an independent Norman power on his western shores.
Clarendon, Edward Hyde (1609–1674) (1st Earl of Clarendon) English politician and historian, chief adviser to Charles II from 1651 to 1667. A member of Parliament in 1640, he joined the Royalist side in 1641. The Clarendon Code (1661–65), a series of acts passed by the government, was directed at Nonconformists (or Dissenters) and was designed to secure the supremacy of the Church of England.
Clarendon, George William Frederick Villiers (1800–1870) (4th Earl of Clarendon) British Liberal diplomat, lord lieutenant of Ireland 1847– 52, foreign secretary 1853–58, 1865–66, and 1868–70. He was posted to Ireland at the time of the potato famine. His diplomatic skill was shown at the Congress of Paris in 1856 and in the settlement of the dispute between Britain and the USA over the Alabama cruiser.
Clarendon, Constitutions of in English history, a series of resolutions agreed by a council summoned by Henry II at Clarendon in Wiltshire in 1164. The Constitutions forbade the church to convict laymen on secret information, and demanded that clergy accused of a felony be tried in the royal courts. The Constitutions aimed at limiting the secular power of the clergy, and were abandoned after the murder of Thomas à Becket.
Clark, Alan Kenneth McKenzie (1928–1999) British Conservative politician and military historian. He served as a minister of state for defence 1989–92 but failed to achieve Cabinet rank. In 1997 he returned to politics as MP for Kensington and Chelsea. His Diaries (1993), a record of his political career, have been labelled as frequently indiscreet. His historical works include The Donkeys (1961), a study of British military leadership in World War I; and Barbarossa (1965), an examination of the Nazi invasion of Russia in 1941. Alan Clark Conservative MP
Page154 'There are three things in this world you can do nothing about: getting AIDS, getting clamped, and running out of Chateau Lafite '45.' [Independent, 24 April 1999]
Clarkson, Thomas (1760–1846) British philanthropist. From 1785 he devoted himself to a campaign against slavery. He was one of the founders of the Anti‐Slavery Society in 1823 and was largely responsible for the abolition of slavery in British colonies in 1833.
Claverhouse, John Graham (c. 1649–1689) (Viscount Dundee) Scottish soldier. Appointed by Charles II to suppress the Covenanters from 1677, he was routed at Drumclog in 1679, but three weeks later won the battle of Bothwell Bridge, by which the rebellion was crushed. Until 1688 he was engaged in continued persecution and became known as 'Bloody Clavers', regarded by the Scottish people as a figure of evil. His army then joined the first Jacobite rebellion and defeated the loyalist forces at the Battle of Killiecrankie, where he was mortally wounded.
Clayton‐Bulwer Treaty agreement between Britain and the USA to respect the neutrality of the proposed ship canal across Central America. It was signed for the USA by the Secretary of State, John Clayton and for Britain by the English diplomat and Liberal MP, Henry Bulwer. The Clayton‐Bulwer Treaty, concluded in Washington, DC, on 19 April and ratified on 4 July 1850, was abrogated in 1901 by the Hay‐ Pauncefote Treaty, which embraced the neutrality rule of the Panama Canal.
Cleland, William (c. 1661–1689) Scottish soldier and poet. He joined the Covenanters, with whom he fought at Drumclog and Bothwell Bridge in 1679 against Government forces to defend Presbyterianism in Scotland. Later he was an agent for William of Orange, and was made lieutenant colonel of the Cameronian regiment which defended Dunkeld against the Jacobite rebels in 1689; he was killed there.
clerk of the peace former local government and judicial official in England and Wales. Clerks of the peace held the office of clerk to the county council and in many cases were also clerks to the justices and quarter sessions. In their local government role they were the chief executive officer of the county council and in their judicial role they were responsible for maintaining the records of quarter sessions and advising the justices on the law relating to cases before them.
Cleveland, Duchess of (born Barbara Villiers) English courtier, mistress of Charles II; see Castlemaine, Countess of.
Clifford Anglo‐Norman family descended from Richard Fitzponce. His son, Walter, adopted the name Clifford when he acquired Clifford Castle in Herefordshire by marriage. Clifford was the father of Fair Rosamond, Henry II's mistress.
Page155 Clifford, Thomas, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh (1630–1673) English statesman. He was a member of the Cabal ministry of King Charles II. As a Roman Catholic, he supported the Declaration of Indulgence issued by Charles in 1672; he resigned when the Test Act was introduced in 1673. Clifford was instrumental in arranging the secret Treaty of Dover in 1670, whereby Charles II promised Louis XIV of France that he would restore Catholicism in England and support France against the Dutch, and Louis agreed to finance Charles and supply him with troops if necessary.
Clinton, Henry (c. 1730–1795) British soldier, born in Newfoundland, Canada. He took part in the Seven Years' War and the American Revolution. In 1778 he became commander‐in‐chief in North America, but resigned in 1781. He became a general in 1793 and was appointed governor of Gibraltar in 1794.
Clontarf, Battle of comprehensive Irish victory over a Norse invasion force on Good Friday, 23 April, 1014. Although the Irish won a magnificent victory which completely lifted the Norse threat to Ireland, the Irish king Brian Bóruma and his son were both killed in the battle; Brian, being too old to fight, was slain in his tent.
closure (or clôture) method of bringing a question under discussion to an immediate decision in Parliamentary procedure. It was introduced in 1881 by William Gladstone to combat the obstructive tactics of the Irish Nationalist party, and was embodied in a permanent standing order in 1887.
Clynes, John Robert (1869–1949) British Labour politician. He was chair of the Parliamentary Labour Party 1921–22, Lord Privy Seal and deputy leader of the Commons in 1924, and home secretary 1929–31.
Cnut alternative spelling of Canute.
Coalbrookdale village in the Telford and Wrekin unitary authority, England, effectively a suburb of Telford, situated in the Severn Gorge; population (1991) 1,000. Sometimes known as the 'cradle of the Industrial Revolution', Coalbrookdale became the world's most important iron‐producing area following Abraham Darby I's successful attempt in 1709 to use coke – rather than coal or charcoal – to smelt iron in a blast‐furnace, thereby allowing for a massive increase in production. It is now the site of the Coalbrookdale Museum of Iron which forms part of the Ironbridge Gorge World Heritage Site.
coal mining the expansion of the British coal mining industry to meet the needs of the Industrial Revolution is discussed in Industrial Revolution, coal.
Page156 Coalport Porcelain English porcelain factory, producing both decorative and domestic porcelain. Founded at Coalport, Shropshire in 1796, it amalgamated with the Caughley porcelain works in 1799 and took over the Welsh works of Swansea and Nantgarw. The factory moved to Staffordshire in 1926. Its bone china was very popular and high‐quality and elaborate pieces continue to be made.
Cobb, Richard Charles (born 1917) English historian. Specializing in French history, particularly the French Revolutionary period, his publications include The Police and the People: French Popular Protest 1789–1820 1970 and Reactions to the French Revolution 1972.
Cobbett, William (1763–1835) English Radical politician and journalist, who published the weekly Political Register 1802–35. He spent much of his life in North America. His crusading essays on the conditions of the rural poor were collected as 'Rural Rides' (1830). William Cobbett English politician and journalist 'As a son, as a husband, as a father, and especially as an adviser of young men, I deem it my duty to say that, on a review of his whole life, I can find no one good thing to speak of, in either the conduct or the character of this king ..' [Of King George IV. Quoted in the Political Register, 1830] William Cobbett English Radical politician and journalist 'From a very early age, I had imbibed the opinion, that it was every man's duty to do all that lay in his power to leave his country as good as he had found it.' [Political Register, 22 December 1832] William Cobbett English Radical politician and journalist 'Give me, Lord, neither poverty nor riches.' [Political Register 22 December 1832]
Page157 William Cobbett English politician and journalist 'The great snorting bawler.' [On William Pitt the Younger, in Rural Rides]
Cobden, Richard (1804–1865) British Liberal politician and economist, cofounder with John Bright of the Anti‐Corn Law League in 1838. A member of Parliament from 1841, he opposed class and religious privileges and believed in disarmament and free trade. Richard Cobden British Liberal politician 'Is it that war is a luxury? Is it that we are fighting – to use a cant phrase of Mr Pitt's time – to secure indemnity for the past and security for the future? Are we to be the Don Quixotes of Europe, to go about fighting for every cause where we find that someone has been wronged?' [Speech in the House of Commons December 1854]
Cockayne project scheme to manufacture cloth in England rather than export wool for this purpose to the Netherlands, named after its originator, Alderman Cockayne of London. A new company, the Merchant Adventurers was founded to exploit the idea, intended to transform England from being an exporter of primary material to a producer of value‐added goods, and it was granted a monopoly over the export of cloth 1615. Despite James I's backing, the project had failed by 1617 due to underfunding and lack of expertise and its collapse caused a prolonged depression in the cloth trade.
coffee house alternative to ale‐houses as social meeting place, largely for the professional classes, popular in the 17th and 18th centuries. Christopher Bowman opened the first Coffee House in London (later known as the 'Pasqua Rosee') in St Michael's Alley, Cornhill, in 1652 and others soon followed in both London and Oxford so that by 1708 London alone boasted 3,000 coffee houses. Their popularity stemmed from their reputations as centres for the dissemination of news and ideas, making them good places to meet others of a like mind and also to conduct business. For this reason, coffee houses were often associated with radical readings and an attempt was made to suppress them by royal proclamation in 1675 but the coffee houses were too popular and the attempt was abandoned within a matter of days. The coffee houses declined in popularity toward the end of the 18th century as coffee itself was largely superseded by the new fashion for tea. Many coffee houses attracted a particular group or profession and built their reputations and clientele around a certain business. For example, London underwriters specializing in marine insurance began to meet regularly in Edwin Lloyd's coffee house from about 1688 and the place was so heavily associated with that business that it gave its name to the Lloyds insurance market.
Page158 coffee house
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
A contemporary picture of a coffee house from about 1700. Coffee, chocolate, and tea were all introduced to England in the mid‐17th century, and coffee houses rapidly became popular meeting places for the discussion of business affairs and literature.
Coke, Edward (1552–1634) Lord Chief Justice of England 1613–17. He was a defender of common law against royal prerogative; against Charles I he drew up the petition of right in 1628, which defines and protects Parliament's liberties. Edward Coke English Lord Chief Justice
Page159 'For a man's house is his castle.' [Institutes, Commentary upon Littleton, Third Institute, ch. 73]
Coke, Thomas William (1754–1842) (1st Earl of Leicester) English agriculturalist and politician who was renowned for his innovations in both arable farming and animal husbandry. A long‐serving member of Parliament for Norfolk (1776–1806 and 1807–32), he introduced new strains of crops and made improvements to the breeding of cattle and sheep on his extensive farms. His innovations included regular manuring of the soil, the cultivation of fodder crops in association with corn, and the drilling of wheat and turnips.
Cole, G(eorge) D(ouglas) H(oward) (1889–1959) English economist, historian, and detective‐story writer. Chair of the Fabian Society 1939–46 and 1948–50 and its president from 1952, he wrote numerous books on socialism, including biographies of William Cobbett (1925) and Robert Owen (1925) and a history of the British working‐class movements (1948), often in collaboration with his wife, Margaret Isabel Cole (1893–1980), and her brother, Raymond Postgate. The Coles also collaborated in writing detective fiction.
Cole, Henry (1808–1882) English public official, art critic, and editor. He organized the Great Exhibition of 1851 and played a major part in founding the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum, the Royal Albert Hall, and the Royal College of Music, all in London. Employed at the Treasury on the postal project (1839–42), he introduced the penny postage system in 1840, and the adhesive stamp.
Cole, Margaret Isabel (1893–1980) (born Margaret Postgate) English writer, historian, and political analyst. A socialist and feminist, she created many distinguished works including The Makers of the Labour Movement (1948) and an acclaimed biography of the English social reformer Beatrice Webb (1945). In addition she co‐wrote An Intelligent Man's Review of Europe Today (1933), A Guide to Modern Politics (1934), and 29 detective stories. Cole was born in Cambridge, and educated at Roedean School, Sussex. After studying classics at Girton College, Cambridge, she taught for a time at St Paul's School, London, before becoming a researcher for the Fabian Society.
Colenso, Battle of in the South African War, British defeat by Boer forces 15 December 1899 on the Tugela River about 32 km/20 mi south of Ladysmith. A British force under General Sir Redvers Buller attempting to relieve Ladysmith ran into a strong Boer defensive position on the Tulega River and was driven back with severe losses in troops and guns.
Colepeper (or Culpeper), John, 1st Baron Colepeper (died 1660) English Royalist politician. He was a member of the Long Parliament in 1640 and was appointed chancellor of
Page160 the Exchequer in 1642. He became one of Charles I's advisers and fought for him in the Battle of Edgehill, at the start of the English Civil War. He was raised to the peerage in 1644.
Collier, Jeremy (1650–1726) British Anglican cleric, a Nonjuror, who was outlawed 1696 for granting absolution on the scaffold to two men who had tried to assassinate William III. His Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage 1698 was aimed at the dramatists William Congreve and John Vanbrugh.
Collingwood, Cuthbert (1750–1810) (1st Baron Collingwood) British admiral who served with Horatio Nelson in the West Indies against France and blockaded French ports between 1803 and 1805; after Nelson's death he took command at the Battle of Trafalgar. He was made Baron in 1805. Cuthbert Collingwood British admiral 'Let us do something today which the world may talk of hereafter.' [Before the Battle of Trafalgar 21 October 1805, quoted in G L Newnham Collingwood (ed) Correspondence and Memoir of Lord Collingwood]
Collins, Michael (1890–1922) Irish nationalist. He was a Sinn Fein leader, a founder and director of intelligence of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in 1919, a minister in the provisional government of the Irish Free State in 1922, commander of the Free State forces in the civil war, and for ten days head of state before being killed by Irish republicans. Born in County Cork, Collins joined the Irish Republican Brotherhood while working in London, and in 1916 returned to Ireland to fight in the Easter Rising. Following his release from prison in December 1916, he became a leading republican organizer and in 1918 was elected Sinn Fein member to the Dáil (Irish parliament). Appointed minister of home affairs and then minister for finance, he continued to maintain a dominant position in the Irish Volunteers (later the IRA) as a director of organization and intelligence. During the Anglo‐Irish War (1919–21) he was noted for his skilful infiltration of the British intelligence system in Ireland and ruthless assassination of its operatives. In 1921 Collins helped vice‐president Arthur Griffith to negotiate the Anglo‐Irish Treaty, and encouraged the support of key IRA figures. He became chairman of the pro‐treaty provisional government and, during the ensuing civil war, commander‐in‐chief of the national army which crushed the opposition in Dublin and the large towns within a few months. When Griffith died on 12 August 1922, Collins became head of state but was ambushed and killed near Cork on 22 August.
Colman, St (c.605–676) (or Colman of Lindisfarne) Irish monk. He was a monk on the island of Iona and became Bishop of Lindisfarne in 661, succeeding St Finan. However, in 664 he returned to Iona after the Celtic party he led was defeated at the Synod of Whitby. Later, he moved to Ireland with his followers, settling and building a monastery (668) on the island of Inishbofin off the west coast. His feast
Page161 day is 8 August.
colonia ((Latin, 'colony')) Roman term for a settlement of Roman citizens. It consisted of a city and its dependent territory and often grew up around a legionary fortress, where retired soldiers might be granted plots of land in the town and in the surrounding countryside. The first British colonia was founded AD 49 at Camulodumum (Colchester). Others followed at Eboracum (York), Glevum (Gloucester) and Lindum (Lincoln).
Colquhoun, Ithell (1906–1988) (born Margaret Ithell) English artist and poet. Associated with the English surrealists, her work dealt with mythological and biblical subjects prior to 1930, but she turned to the portrayal of dreamlike states, and in the 1940s painted fantastic plants using various media. From 1956 she lived in Cornwall, where she wrote about and painted themes from the occult and alchemy. Colquhoun was born in Assam, India, and studied at the Slade School of Art, London, before working in various studios in Paris and Athens. She met André Breton, the leading exponent of surrealism, and the Spanish surrealist Salvador Dalí in 1933, and exhibited at the 1936 International Surrealist Exhibition. Later her work was shown widely in the UK and abroad, and she also contributed articles and poems to the London Bulletin.
Combination Acts laws passed in Britain in 1799 and 1800 making trade unionism illegal. They were introduced after the French Revolution for fear that the trade unions would become centres of political agitation. The unions continued to exist, but claimed to be friendly societies or went underground, until the acts were repealed in 1824, largely owing to the radical Francis Place.
Comgall, St (515–602) Irish abbot. Born in Ulster, he founded the great Abbey of Bangor, in County Down, in around 558. St Comgall is reputed to have lived on the Hebridean island of Tiree for a time, and accompanied St Columba on his journey to the north of Scotland.
common pleas, court of one of the courts into which the Curia Regis (King's Court) was divided. It was originally the only superior court having jurisdiction in civil actions between subjects. It consisted of the Lord Chief Justice and five puisne judges. It was transferred to the High Court of Justice 1873 and is now represented by the Queen's Bench Division, one of the three divisions of the High Court.
commonwealth body politic founded on law for the common 'weal' or good. Political philosophers of the 17th century, such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, used the term to mean an organized political community. In Britain it is specifically applied to the period between 1649 and 1660 when, after the execution of Charles I in the English Civil War, England was a republic.
Commonwealth Immigration Acts successive acts to regulate the entry into the UK of British subjects from the Commonwealth. The Commonwealth Immigration Act, passed by the Conservative government in 1962, ruled that Commonwealth immigrants entering Britain must have employment or be able to offer required skills. Further restrictions have been added since.
Page162 Commonwealth, the (British) voluntary association of 54 sovereign (self‐ruling) countries and their dependencies, the majority of which once formed part of the British Empire and are now independent sovereign states. They are all regarded as 'full members of the Commonwealth'; the newest member being Mozambique, which was admitted in November 1995. Additionally, there are 13 territories that are not completely sovereign and remain dependencies of the UK or one of the other fully sovereign members, and are regarded as 'Commonwealth countries'. Heads of government meet every two years, apart from those of Nauru and Tuvalu; however, Nauru and Tuvalu have the right to take part in all functional activities. The Commonwealth, which was founded in 1931, has no charter or constitution, and is founded more on tradition and sentiment than on political or economic factors. However, it can make political statements by withdrawing membership; a recent example was Nigeria's suspension between November 1995 and May 1999 because of human‐rights abuses. Fiji was readmitted in October 1997, ten years after its membership had been suspended as a result of discrimination against its ethnic Indian community. On 15 May 1917 Jan Smuts, representing South Africa in the Imperial War Cabinet of World War I, suggested that 'British Commonwealth of Nations' was the right title for the British Empire. The name was recognized in the Statute of Westminster in 1931, but after World War II a growing sense of independent nationhood led to the simplification of the title to the Commonwealth. In 2000 Queen Elizabeth II was the formal head but not the ruler of 17 member states; 5 member states had their own monarchs; and 33 were republics (having no monarch). The Commonwealth secretariat, headed from April 2000 by London‐born Canadian Don McKinnon as secretary general, is based in London. The secretariat's staff come from a number of member countries, which also pay its operating costs.
Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) British Marxist party founded in 1920, largely inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917. Its affiliation with the Labour Party (it had originally been intended as a branch of the Labour Party) ended in the late 1920s, when the organization was proscribed. The party enjoyed its greatest popularity in the 1930s and 1940s, particularly after Britain allied with the USSR during World War II. It had 18,000 members in 1939 and had two MPs elected in 1945, representing West Fife in Scotland and Mile End in London. The party was riven internally by the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 and moved away from the USSR during the 1960s, particularly after the invasion of Czechoslovakia of 1968. Disbanded in 1991, the party was relaunched as 'Democratic Left', although some splinter factions still lay claim to the old name.
composition in Irish history, a key Elizabethan reform policy first instituted by Lord Deputy Henry Sidney (1529–1586) in the mid‐1570s, which commuted the feudal practice of coyne and livery (military billeting exacted on tenants and subjects) into a fixed tax collected by English government officials for a commission. The scheme aimed to demilitarize the lordships and settle relations between great lords and lesser families, while securing revenue for the crown. Although successful in Munster, Connacht, and later Ulster, it was unpopular in the English Pale and provoked divisions in the Irish lordships between those who stood to lose and to gain, leading to the rebellions of the 1590s. Composition was devised by Sidney, in collaboration with his personal adviser Edmund Tremayne. After a favourable reception in Munster and Connacht, Sidney attempted to secure a similar permanent tax from the gentry of the English Pale in place of cess (the traditional maintenance of government troops), but his efforts provoked a constitutional crisis which resulted in
Page163 his dismissal in 1578; the proposed tax was commuted to an agreed one‐year sum. His successor, Lord Deputy John Perrot (c. 1527–1592), promoted composition successfully in Connacht and Ulster in the mid‐1580s, but this revival ended with his sudden recall in 1588. However, the expected reintroduction of composition caused increasing dissension between the Irish lordships.
Compton, Spencer (1673–1743) (Earl of Wilmington) British Whig politician, prime minister and First Lord of the Treasury from 1742. He became Speaker of the House of Commons 1715 and a privy councillor 1716. In office he was regarded as weak and a mouthpiece for others. career During the 1720s, Compton held the lucrative post of paymaster general, but the complexities of ministerial office revealed his lack of ability. However, he enjoyed royal patronage, George II making him Lord President of the Privy Council and Earl of Wilmington 1730. The political machinations of the Whig party meant that he was prime minister in name only.
comptroller official title for a person who keeps or audits accounts, used mainly for government offices, or in connection with the royal household, when it refers to a kind of steward or treasurer. Thus the comptroller‐general is the head of the National Debt Office, the comptroller and auditor‐general the head of the National Audit Office. In business, comptroller is an alternative term for a financial director or the financial head of a group of companies. The term is more popular in the USA than in the UK.
Comyn (or Cumming or Cumyn) branch of a Norman family that came to England with William the Conqueror in the 11th century. Robert Comyn was made earl of Northumberland by William the Conqueror and his son, William Comyn, became chancellor of Scotland in about 1133. His descendants included the earls of Buchan, Monteith, Angus, and Athole.
Conchobar in Celtic mythology, king of Ulster whose intended bride, Deirdre, eloped with Noísi. She died of sorrow when Conchobar killed her husband and his brothers.
Confederation of Kilkenny (or Confederate Catholics of Ireland) in Irish history, title given to the series of assemblies of Old English and Gaelic Irish Catholics held 1642–48. The confederation was organized by the Catholic clergy after the Old English joined the Gaelic Irish rebellion against government forces begun in 1641. However, fundamental divisions between the groups, and between secular and clerical leaders, paralyzed its ability to conduct war, and dissension increased from 1646 after conservative elements within the Old English sought peace with the Marquis of Ormond (1610–1688), commander of the royalist forces. Failure to form a united front proved fatal as the English Parliament, victorious in the English Civil War (1642–51), turned its attention to Ireland, and Oliver Cromwell's campaign of 1649–51 crushed all opposition. The confederation originally intended to administer Catholic areas of Ireland until a settlement could be agreed, asserting their rights as subjects of Charles I; their motto was Pro Deo, Rege et Patria Hibernia Unanimis, 'For God, King and Ireland United'.
Page164 Congregation, Lords of the see Lords of the Congregation.
Coningham, Arthur (1895–1948) British air marshal. After service with the New Zealand Army in World War I, he joined the Royal Flying Corps 1916 then transferred to the Royal Air Force on its formation. In World War II, he developed the techniques of air support for ground forces while commanding the Desert Air Force in North Africa. KCB 1942.
Conisbrough town in South Yorkshire, England, 8 km/5 mi southwest of Doncaster; population (1991) 14,500. Conisbrough Castle, with a fine circular keep, is a Norman castle built by Hamelin, a half‐brother of Henry II, in around 1180.
Connaught and Strathearn, Arthur William Patrick Albert, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (1850–1942) British prince, seventh child and third son of Queen Victoria. He followed a career with the army and was made Duke of Connaught and Strathearn in 1874. In 1879 he married Princess Louise Marguerite of Prussia (1860–1917); they had three children: Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden (1882–1920), Prince Arthur (1883–1938), and Lady Patricia Ramsay (1886–1974).
Connell, James (1850–1929) Irish socialist who wrote the British Labour Party anthem 'The Red Flag' during the 1889 London strike. James Connell Irish socialist 'Tho' cowards flinch and traitors sneer, / We'll keep the red flag flying here.' [From James Connell's 'The Red Flag', traditionally sung at close of annual conference of the Labour Party, in H E Piggott (ed) Songs that made History]
Connolly, James (1870–1916) Irish socialist and revolutionary. Born in Edinburgh of immigrant Irish parents, Connolly combined a Marx‐ inspired socialism with a Fenian‐inspired republicanism. He helped found the Irish Socialist Republican Party in Dublin in 1896, and organized a strike of transport workers in 1913 with the Irish Labour leader James Larkin. His Irish Citizen Army took part in the Easter Rising against British rule in 1916, for which he was executed by the British. After establishing the Irish Socialist Republican Party and founding The Workers' Republic, the first Irish socialist paper, Connolly grew disillusioned with his political progress and moved to the USA in 1903, where he was active in the International Workers of the World. Returning to Ireland in 1910, he became involved in trade‐union, industrial, and political affairs in Belfast and Dublin and played a key role in the establishment the Irish Labour Party. Connolly the international socialist opposed World War I, but Connolly the Irish republican hoped to take advantage of it to begin an anti‐ British rebellion. Consequently he committed his small Irish Citizen Army to a joint operation with the Irish
Page165 Republican Brotherhood that resulted in the Easter Rising. Connolly was a signatory of the declaration of the Irish Republic, and was responsible for its more socially radical sentiments. He was commandant general of the Dublin Division in the rising and was wounded in the fighting. News of his execution while sitting propped‐up in a chair was said to have fuelled the indignation of Irish nationalists at the government's treatment of the rebels. His books Irish History (1910) and The Reconquest of Ireland (1915), exercised profound influence on Irish socialist thought long after his death.
consensus politics phrase used to describe the practice of government in Britain between 1945 and 1979. The phenomenon was observed by political scientists and media commentators; Britain's two major political parties, the Conservative Party and Labour Party, were in agreement, or consensus, over certain basic government policies in the decades after World War II. The introduction of fundamental changes in government responsibility, such as the welfare state, the national health service (NHS), and widespread nationalization of industry, were effectively unchallenged by either party. The consensus lasted throughout the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, but started to break down in the 1970s. Following the oil price rises of the early 1970s, the new economic experience of 'stagflation', where high inflation was combined with high unemployment, caused many in the Conservative Party to challenge the accepted orthodoxy of Keynesian economics – that a fall in national income and rising unemployment should be countered by increased government expenditure to stimulate the economy. There was increasing divergence of economic opinion between the two parties, ending the consensus of the previous decades. By the time of the election of Margaret Thatcher in 1979 on a strongly free‐market monetarist platform (aiming to curb inflation by controlling the UK's money supply, cut government spending, and privatize industry, consensus had become an unpopular word in many parts of the political establishment.
Conservative Party UK political party, one of the two historic British parties; the name replaced Tory in general use from 1830 onwards. Traditionally the party of landed interests (those owning substantial land or property), it broadened its political base under Benjamin Disraeli's leadership in the 19th century. In recent history, the Conservative Party was in power under Margaret Thatcher (1979–90) and John Major (1990–97). After the party's defeat in the 1997 general election, John Major resigned as party leader and was succeeded by William Hague, who in turn resigned following defeat in the 2001 general election. He was replaced by Iain Duncan Smith. The party's Central Office is located in Smith Square, London, and the current party chairman is Michael Ancram. In 2001, the party had 325,000 members. In the 1980s the party's economic policies increased the spending power of the majority, but also widened the gap between rich and poor; nationalized industries were sold off under privatization schemes; military spending and close alliance with the USA were favoured; and the funding of local government was overhauled with the introduction of the poll tax. The Conservative government of John Major rejected some of the extreme policies of Thatcherism, notably the poll tax, introduced the new Citizen's Charter, and promoted further privatization or market testing.
Page166 Edwina Currie Former Conservative MP 'The fear factor did not work. There was more fear of us.' [On her party's election strategy following their defeat in the general election; Time, 12 May 1997] Peter Mandelson Secretary of State for Trade and Industry 'Only if the British people were to feel complete despair, utter self‐loathing, a total loss of self‐respect.' [On the conditions in which voters might identify with the Conservative Party; Independent on Sunday, 15 November 1998]
constable, parish in England, an officer formerly appointed to keep the peace in manors, villages, and tithings when the increase of population made the duty too onerous for high constables alone.
Conventicle Act statute of 1664 in England designed to suppress nonconformists, prohibiting five or more persons from holding religious meetings other than of the established Church. Similar to an Elizabethan statute 1593, this contentious measure expired 1667 but was then re‐enacted in milder form 1670 before being repealed by the Toleration Act 1689.
Cook, Arthur James (1883–1931) Welsh miners' leader. Born in Wookey, Somerset, he became a coal miner in the Rhondda and a leading figure in the South Wales branch of the Union of Mineworkers. A left‐wing socialist, he became general secretary of the national union in 1924 and was one of the miners' leaders during the General Strike of 1926. A powerful orator, he fought successfully to hold the union together after the strike.
Cook, James (1728–1779) English naval explorer. After surveying the St Lawrence River in North America in 1759, he made three voyages: 1768–71 to Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia; 1772–75 to the South Pacific; and 1776–79 to the South and North Pacific, attempting to find the Northwest Passage and charting the Siberian coast. He was largely responsible for Britain's initial interest in acquiring colonies in Australasia. He was killed in Hawaii early in 1779 in a scuffle with islanders. In 1768 Cook was given command of an expedition to the South Pacific to witness the transit of Venus across the Sun. He sailed in the Endeavour with Joseph Banks and other scientists, reaching Tahiti in April 1769. He then sailed around New Zealand and made a detailed survey of the east coast of Australia, naming New South Wales and Botany Bay. He returned to England on 12 June 1771. Now a commander, Cook set out in 1772 with the Resolution and Adventure to search for the southern continent. The location of Easter Island was determined, and the Marquesas and Tonga Islands plotted. He also went to New
Page167 Caledonia and Norfolk Island. Cook returned on 25 July 1775, having sailed 100,000 km/60,000 mi in three years. On 25 June 1776, he began his third and last voyage with the Resolution and Discovery. On the way to New Zealand, he visited several of the Cook or Hervey Islands and revisited the Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands. The ships sighted the North American coast at latitude 45° N and sailed north hoping to discover the Northwest Passage. He made a continuous survey as far as the Bering Strait, where the way was blocked by ice. Cook then surveyed the opposite coast of the strait (Siberia), and returned to Hawaii early in 1779, where he was killed when his expedition clashed with islanders. James Cook British naval explorer 'At daylight in the morning we discovered a bay, which appeared to be tolerably well sheltered from all winds, into which I resolved to go with the ship.' [Referring to Botany Bay Journal, 28 April 1770] James Cook British naval explorer 'Was this country settled by an Industrus people they would very soon be suppl'd not only with the necessarys but many of the luxuries of life.' [Of New Zealand, Journal March 1770]
Cook, Robin (Robert Finlayson) (1946–) Scottish Labour politician, leader of the Commons 2002–03. A member of the moderate‐left Tribune Group, he entered Parliament in 1974 and became a leading member of Labour's shadow cabinet, specializing in health matters. When John Smith assumed the party leadership in July 1992, Cook remained in the shadow cabinet as spokesperson for trade and industry. He became shadow foreign secretary under Smith's successor, Tony Blair, in October 1994. As foreign secretary 1997–2001 in Blair's first term, he attempted to place an emphasis on human rights as part of an ethical foreign policy. He resigned as leader of the Commons in 2003 in protest over Britain's involvement in the Iraq War. Margaret Cook Haematologist and former wife of Foreign Secretary Robin Cook MP 'The stories in the press with regard to the Foreign Secretary are trivial and should be laid to rest so that he can get on with his job which he does well.' [On allegations that her estranged husband had attempted to install his mistress, Gaynor Regan, in the publicly‐funded post of diary secretary. Daily Telegraph 2 February.]
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Margaret Cook Ex‐wife of Foreign Secretary Robin Cook 'There were worse things I could have put in.' [On her autobiography, which revealed her ex‐husband as a serial adulterer and occasional alcoholic; Sunday Telegraph, 10 January 1999] Robin Cook British Labour MP, foreign secretary from 1997 'It's better to send middle‐aged men abroad to bore each other than send young men abroad to kill each other.' [On UN negotiations with Saddam Hussein; Independent, 14 February 1998] Robin Cook Foreign Secretary 'We knew we were doing the right thing, and we kept our nerve.' [Referring to NATO's bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, following Serbia's agreement to withdraw its troops and 'special forces' from Kosovo in return for the cessation of NATO's bombing. in a feature written for the Daily Telegraph, 5 June 1999]
Cooper, (Alfred) Duff, 1st Viscount Norwich (1890–1954) English Conservative politician. He was elected Conservative member of Parliament in 1924 and was secretary of war 1935–37, but resigned from the Admiralty in 1938 over Neville Chamberlain's appeasement policy. He served as minister for information 1940–42 under Winston Churchill and as ambassador to France 1944–47.
Cope, John (died 1760) English general. Commander‐in‐chief of the forces in Scotland during the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745. He was humiliatingly defeated at Prestonpans, southeast Scotland, on 21 September 1745 by Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender.
Copenhagen, Battle of naval victory on 2 April 1801 by a British fleet under Sir Hyde Parker (1739–1807) and Nelson over the Danish fleet. Nelson put his telescope to his blind eye and refused to see Parker's signal for withdrawal.
Cormac MacArt (or MacAirt or Cormac ua Cuinn MacAirt)
Page169 pseudo‐historical king of Ireland in the first half of the 3rd century, alledgedly reigning, according to various sources, for around 40 years. Grandson of Conn Cétchathach (Conn of the Hundred Battles), he established the Connachta dynasty of kings at Tara (modern County Meath). According to tradition he was proclaimed king after delivering a judgement wiser than the reigning king of Ireland, Mac Con. The Tecosca Cormaic/Teachings of Cormac, a legal text describing the proper behaviour for kings and warriors, is attributed to him. Celebrated as a patron of arts and learning, Cormac MacArt was said to have founded schools of military science, law, and literature at Tara.
Cormac MacCulinan (836–908) King of Ireland 901–07 and bishop of Munster. His reign was troubled by Danish invasions, and he was killed by Danes in the battle of Moy Albe. He was also a poet and scholar. A chronicle in Irish verse, The Psalter of Cashel, and an etymological glossary of the Irish language, The Glossary of Cormac are attributed to him.
cornet in the 18th century and up to 1871, the lowest rank of commissioned officer in the British cavalry. In 1871 the title was replaced by 'second lieutenant'.
Corn Laws in Britain until 1846, laws used to regulate the export or import of cereals in order to maintain an adequate supply for consumers and a secure price for producers. For centuries the Corn Laws formed an integral part of the mercantile system in England; they were repealed because they became an unwarranted tax on food and a hindrance to British exports. the Corn Law of 1815 Although mentioned as early as the 12th century, the Corn Laws only became significant 1815. After the Napoleonic wars, faced with agricultural depression, the landed interests in Parliament used their political power to prevent prices falling. The Corn Law of 1815 prevented the import of wheat unless the price of British grain rose to £4 a quarter (2.91 hl/8 bushels). To a degree, the law was a success. It did help to protect British farming from foreign competition and to stabilize prices. As they were receiving a high price, farmers were able to continue to introduce improvements. However, the Corn Law pushed the price of bread too high, causing distress to the poor. Business interests argued that, by driving up prices, they also forced up wages and put British industry at a disadvantage in world markets. William Huskisson, president of the Board of Trade, introduced a sliding scale in 1828 whereby the higher the price of British grain, the lower the duty on imports. The rate of duty was reduced in 1842. However, the principle of protection was still the same. repeal The Corn Laws aroused strong opposition and became a hotly contested political issue, as they were regarded by radicals as benefiting wealthy landowners at the expense of the ordinary consumer. The industrialists – whose power in Parliament was growing, especially after the Reform Act of 1832 – also opposed the Corn Laws; they argued that protectionism merely caused other countries to close their economies to British goods, and they wanted free trade. It was also argued that the Corn Laws allowed British farming to stay inefficient, and actually held back improvement. In 1838 the Anti‐Corn Law League was formed to campaign for the repeal of the laws. Partly as a result of the
Page170 League, and also partly on account of the Irish potato famine, the laws were repealed by prime minister Robert Peel in 1846, although it destroyed his career. The Age of Reform: Politics and Social Change in 19th‐Century Britain Politics and Social Change in 19th‐Century Britain Reform was the leading political issue of 19th‐century Britain – reform of the protectionist system, reform of the franchise, and reform of society. It was an issue which politicized British society, and increased middle class social awareness, to a level not seen since the 1640s. The repeal of the protectionist Corn Laws (which had controlled movements of grain in order to keep domestic prices high) by Sir Robert Peel 1846 split the governing Tories, but reflected the extent to which the interests of an increasingly urbanized and literate society set the political agenda. The Reform Acts Successive extensions of the franchise (right to vote) created a mass electorate, though it was still all‐male until the following century. The First Reform Act of 1832, described by its authors as final, fixed a more uniform right to vote that brought the franchise to the middle class, and reorganized the distribution of seats in order to reward growing towns, such as Birmingham, Bradford, and Manchester, and counties, at the expense of 'rotten' boroughs, seats with a small population that were open to corruption. The electorate increased greatly, to about one‐fifth of all English adult males. The Second Reform Act 1867 nearly doubled the existing electorate and, by offering household suffrage, gave the right to vote to about 60% of adult males in boroughs. The Third Reform Act of 1884 extended this franchise to the counties. Changes in the franchise led naturally to further changes: to Liberal election victories in 1868 and 1886, and to changes in the nature of the political system itself. A growing democratization of society led to a far greater emphasis in government on the conditions and attitudes of the people. Society and environment A society influenced by both religious evangelism and the teachings of Charles Darwin (whose Origin of the Species appeared in 1859) was increasingly aware of the importance of environment, and thus living standards. At the same time, a belief in progress and perfectibility was widespread. It was taken up by both politicians and commentators, such as novelists. Charles Dickens (1812–70) was a supporter of reform in fields such as capital punishment, prisons, housing, and prostitution. His novel Bleak House of 1852–53 was an indictment of the coldness of law and church; Little Dorrit 1855–57 was an attack on snobbery, imprisonment for debt, business fraud, and bureaucracy. The novels of Wilkie Collins (1824–89) dealt with divorce, vivisection, and the impact of heredity and environment. Moral campaigns, against slavery, alcohol, and cruelty to animals, aroused widespread support, fuelling a major expansion in the voluntary societies that characterized Victorian Britain. Though compromise and the search for short‐term advantage played a major role in political reform, idealism was also genuine and important. Reform was in part a desire to control the new, more dangerous, society and environment of Victorian Britain. Peel's Metropolitan Police Act 1829 created a uniformed and paid force for London. The County and Borough Police Act 1856 made the
Page171 formation of paid forces obligatory. The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 sought to control the poor, introducing a national system of workhouses. Cholera and typhoid led to the public health movement of the 1840s. The Health of Towns Act 1848 created a Great Board of Health and an administrative structure to improve sanitation, especially water supply. An interventionist state The pace of reform accelerated after the Liberal victory of 1868. The first government of William Gladstone pushed through the disestablishment of the Irish Church in 1869, the introduction of open competition in the Civil Service in 1870, and the secret ballot in 1872. The 1870 Education Act set a minimum level of educational provision, introducing school district authorities where existing parish provision was inadequate. In 1872 the powers of turnpike trusts were ended and road maintenance was placed totally under public control. The Tories, or Conservatives, came to power under Benjamin Disraeli in 1874 and maintained the pace of reform. Legislation on factories in 1874, and Public Health, Artisans' Dwellings, and Pure Food and Drugs Acts in 1875, systematized and extended the regulation of important aspects of public health and social welfare. Building on the Factory Acts of 1833, 1844, 1847, and 1850, those of 1874 and 1878 limited work hours for women and children in industry. The Prison Act 1877 established central government control of prisons. A collectivist state was developing, and in some respects it looked toward the later Welfare State. State intervention in education helped to reduce illiteracy. Greater social intervention by the new, more formal and responsive, mechanisms of local government established under the Local Government Act 1888 (which created directly elected county councils and county boroughs) encouraged, by the end of the century, a general expectation of state intervention in the life of the people, in health, education, and housing.
Cornwallis, Charles, 1st Marquis and 2nd Earl (1738–1805) British general in the American Revolution until 1781, when his defeat at Yorktown led to final surrender and ended the war. He then served twice as governor‐general of India and once as viceroy of Ireland. He succeeded to the earldom in 1762, and was made a marquis in 1792. Cornwallis was educated at Eton and Clare College, Cambridge. He joined the army, and in 1761 served on his first campaign, in Germany. He was made constable of the Tower in 1770. During the American Revolution, before his comprehensive defeat at Yorktown, he won victories over General Gates at Camden in 1780 and General Greene at Guilford in 1781. From 1786 onwards, while serving governor‐ general of India, he instituted many reforms and pacified the country. After capturing Bangalore in 1791 and concluding a treaty with Britain's main adversary Tipu Sahib, he returned to England in 1793. In 1798 he was appointed viceroy of Ireland, where he succeeded in subduing the rebellion led by Wolfe Tone; however, he resigned in 1801 because of the King's refusal to support prime minister William Pitt the Younger's proposal for Catholic emancipation. The following year, he was Britain's chief representative when the Peace of Amiens was concluded with France. In 1805 he was again sent to India, to replace Lord Wellesley as governor‐general, but died at Ghazipur.
Cornwallis, William (1744–1819) English admiral. He was engaged in the actions off Grenada in 1779, St Kitts in 1782, and Dominica in 1782, and commanded the Channel fleet in 1801 and 1803–06 during the
Page172 Napoleonic Wars. He was the brother of Charles, 1st Marquis Cornwallis.
Corporation Act in England, statute of 1661 which effectively excluded religious dissenters from public office. All magistrates in England and Wales were obliged to take sacrament according to the Church of England, to swear an oath of allegiance, to renounce the Covenant, and to declare it treason to carry arms against the King. The measure reflected the wishes of parliament rather than Charles II, though it was later circumvented prior to its repeal in 1828.
corresponding society in British history, one of the first independent organizations for the working classes, advocating annual parliaments and universal male suffrage. The London Corresponding Society was founded in 1792 by politicians Thomas Hardy (1752–1832) and John Horne Tooke (1736–1812). It later established branches in Scotland and the provinces. Many of its activities had to be held in secret and government fears about the spread of revolutionary doctrines led to its being banned in 1799.
Corrigan (or Corrigan‐Maguire), Mairead (1944–) Northern Irish peace activist born in Belfast. She shared the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1976 with Betty Williams for their founding of the grassroots 'Community of Peace People' organization, which aimed to foster reconciliation between the Roman Catholic and Protestant communities in Northern Ireland and end sectarian killing. In August 1976, Corrigan and Williams instigated the peace initiative after witnessing the death of Corrigan's sister's three children in a car crash caused by a shoot‐out between troops and republican terrorists. Under the name 'Mothers for Peace', they began to circulate petitions calling for an end to all violence in the province. The initiative soon became a mass movement, attracting many thousands to public rallies. The two activists shared the 1976 Nobel Peace Prize, but disagreements led to Williams leaving the organization in 1980.
Cort, Henry (1740–1800) English iron manufacturer. For the manufacture of wrought iron, he invented the puddling process and developed the rolling mill (shaping the iron into bars), both of which were significant in the Industrial Revolution. Cort's work meant that Britain no longer had to rely on imported iron and could become self‐sufficient. His method of manufacture combined previously separate actions into one process, removing the impurities of pig iron and producing high‐class metal relatively cheaply and quickly. Anonymous 'The great finer.' [Name given to Henry Cort for his great improvements in iron smelting]
Page173 Cosgrave, William Thomas (1880–1965) Irish revolutionary and politician; president of the executive council (prime minister) of the Irish Free State 1922–32, leader of Cumann na nGaedheal 1923–33, and leader of Fine Gael 1935–44. He was born in Dublin and educated by the Christian Brothers. A founding member of Sinn Fein, he fought in the Easter Rising of 1916 but his death sentence was commuted. He supported the Anglo‐Irish Treaty (1921) and oversaw the ruthless crushing of Irregular IRA forces during the Irish Civil War (1922–23), executing far more IRA members than his British predecessors. Cosgrave was elected to Westminster as a Sinn Fein MP in 1917, and was appointed minister for local government in the first Dáil (then the illegal republican parliament) in 1919. Following the deaths of Collins and Griffith in 1922, he succeeded them as chair of the provisional government and president of the Dáil government respectively, and became prime minister of the Irish Free State. After the civil war the Free State settled down under his leadership to a period of dull and conservative stability. Nevertheless this stability was crucial to the new state's democracy, illustrated by the peaceful transference of power to Cosgrave's old enemies in Fianna Fáil in 1932.
coshery (or coshering) ancient right of an Irish chief, exercised in the Dark Ages, to quarter himself and his retainers in his tenants' lodgings.
Costello, John Aloysius (1891–1976) Irish Fine Gael politician; Taoiseach (prime minister) 1948–51 and 1954–57. Costello was born in Dublin and educated at University College, Dublin. As attorney general to the Irish Free State 1926–32, he assisted in the drafting of the 1931 Statute of Westminster, which regularized relations between the British government and the dominions. In 1949 he oversaw the withdrawal of Eire from the Commonwealth and the formal declaration of the Republic of Ireland. Costello was elected to the Dáil (parliament) in 1933 and, untainted by a civil war background, he was the compromise candidate for Taoiseach (prime minister) in the formation of the first interparty government in 1948. He caused surprise by declaring Ireland a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in 1949. His handling of the 'Mother and Child' health care controversy of 1950–51 seemed to demonstrate the continuing domination of Irish life by the Roman Catholic Church; spiritual leaders expressed concern that the planned care might offer instruction on moral issues, and argued that the right to provide for the health of children belonged to the parents and not the state. Costello's second term of office was ended by the IRA's 'border campaign', which caused the break‐up of his coalition. He retired to the backbenches and resumed his legal practice.
Cotton, Robert Bruce (1571–1631) English antiquary. At his home in Westminster he built up a fine collection of historical manuscripts and coins, many of which derived from the dissolution of the monasteries. His son Thomas Cotton (1594–1662) added to the library (which eventually became the Cottonian Collection of the British Library, London). During his lifetime, Cotton acquired a great reputation as an antiquary. He was referred to by Queen Elizabeth I regarding a question of precedence between England and Spain, and similar requests were made by members of her government. Under King James VI and I he rapidly gained royal favour, being employed on several antiquarian researches. Cotton was first elected to Parliament in 1604, but after the accession of Charles I his influence was used in opposition to
Page174 the crown on constitutional grounds, and he strongly opposed the suggested debasement of the coinage. Cotton's written criticisms of royalty led to his exclusion in 1629 from his library, which was not restored to the family until after his death.
Coulton, George Gordon (1858–1947) English historian. He became a lecturer at Cambridge University in 1919. His major works are Five Centuries of Religion 1923–50, The Medieval Village 1925, Art and the Reformation 1928, and The Medieval Panorama 1938.
Council in the Marches royal court with jurisdiction over Wales and the English border counties; established as part of the process of imposing the King's rule over the semi‐independent Marcher Lords of the Welsh border regions. The Council in the Marches was formally established in January 1543 in the reign of Henry VIII and was abolished in 1641. Though primarily a judicial court, it acted as a spearhead of Protestantism at the time of the Reformation. Edward IV had earlier empowered the council of his son Edward, Prince of Wales, to act as a court in 1473. This power was revived to provide a role for Arthur, Prince of Wales, Henry VII's sickly elder son, who died prematurely at the council's headquarters in Ludlow in 1502.
Council of Estates executive committee, composed of members of parliament and others, convened in the 17th century to govern Scotland during conflicts with the Crown, notably during the Civil War (1640–51), at the time of the Restoration (1660–61), and during the Glorious Revolution (1688–89).
Council of the North in England, royal council which supervised Yorkshire, Cumberland, Durham, Northumberland, and Westmoreland. Though its origins lay in the 15th century, it was reconstituted in 1537 after the Pilgrimage of Grace and was like the Council in the Marches, imposed royal policies on the North, overseeing the introduction of Protestantism. It was abolished along with other regional councils in 1641.
Country Party parliamentary opposition to the royal government in the 17th and 18th centuries in England. Although not a formal party as such, the term is used by many historians to identify a dissident strand of opinion consisting largely of landowners in the shires, generally associated with Protestantism and antipathy to the sophisticated manners and artistic tastes of the court.
Countryside March demonstration in London on 4 March 1998 to promote understanding of the issues facing rural Britain. Issues that had caused controversy and led to the march included the 1997 bill to ban hunting with dogs, and government policies on farming. Around 250,000 people joined the march through central London.
Coupon Election British general election of 1918, named after the letter issued November 1918 by the ruling Liberal–Conservative coalition under Lloyd George and Bonar Law jointly endorsing their candidates. Asquith, who had been ousted as prime minister by Lloyd George in 1916, referred to this letter as a 'coupon', evoking the
Page175 language of wartime rationing. The coalition won a massive victory 14 December 1918, securing a majority of 262, and Lloyd George remained in office.
Courcy, John de (died c. 1219) In Irish history, a prince of Ulster, which he conquered in 1177. He was a member, possibly illegitimate, of a family with connections in Somerset, but established a number of monasteries in Ulster with links to northwest England, and most of those who settled with him in Ulster came from that area. De Courcy held the post of chief governor of Ireland intermittently between 1185 and 1195, but lost the favour of John (I) Lackland (acting king of England from 1189, king 1199–1216) and was ousted by the de Lacys of Meath in 1204 and never recovered his estate. He married Affreca, daughter of the king of Man and the Isles, but left no legitimate heirs.
Courtenay English family of French origin, many members of which have held the earldom of Devon since 1335.
Courtney, Kathleen D'Olier (1878–1974) English suffragette and world peace activist. A founder of the Women's International League for Peace, she chaired the British section and was on the executive of the British League of Nations Union 1928–39. She took part in the drawing up of the United Nations (UN) charter, and was vice chairman, then chairman of the UN association in the UK 1949–51. She was created DBE in 1952. Courtney was born in Gillingham, Kent, and studied modern languages at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. During World War I, like other constitutional suffragettes, she diverted her energies to international Quaker relief work.
Cousins, Frank (1904–1986) British trade unionist and politician. He was general secretary of the Transport and General Workers' Union (TGWU) 1956–69, and was minister of technology 1964–66 and Labour member of Parliament for Nuneaton 1965–66. He resigned from the cabinet in disagreement over the government's prices and incomes policy and returned to the TGWU, also resigning his seat in Parliament. He was chair of the Community Relations Board 1968–70, a body designed to promote better race relations. He withdrew from public life in 1970.
Covenanter in Scottish history, one of the Presbyterian Christians who swore to uphold their forms of worship in a National Covenant, signed on 28 February 1638, when Charles I attempted to introduce a liturgy on the English model into Scotland. A general assembly abolished episcopacy, and the Covenanters signed with the English Parliament the Solemn League and Covenant in 1643, promising military aid in return for the establishment of Presbyterianism in England. A Scottish army entered England and fought at Marston Moor in 1644. At the Restoration Charles II revived episcopacy in Scotland, evicting resisting ministers, so that revolts followed in 1666, 1679, and 1685. However, Presbyterianism was again restored 1688.
Coventry, John (died 1682) English politician. During a parliamentary debate on theatres in
Page176 1670 he indicated that King Charles II's interest was really in the female actors, for which he was attacked and had his nose slit. The subsequent Coventry Act of 1671 made such mutilations a capital offence. He was knighted in 1661.
coyne and livery in Irish history, a general term employed by English commentators to cover the various feudal and arbitrary exactions imposed by Gaelic Irish and Anglo‐Irish lords in late‐medieval and 16th‐century Ireland, particularly in respect of the billeting of military forces. Attempts to abolish coyne and livery became a central concern of Tudor government in Ireland, but the failure of the strategies adopted towards that end, notably composition (commutation of feudal military dues), became a principal cause of the rebellions of the late Elizabethan era. A fusion of the Irish coinmheadh, 'to keep; give hospitality', with the English 'livery', the obligation to care for the lords' horses, the term symbolized the degree to which both ethnic groups in Ireland had become united in their common exploitation of arbitrary taxes.
Crab, Roger (c. 1621–1680) English hermit. He practised great austerity and was accused of witchcraft, imprisoned, cudgelled, and put in the stocks. He published The English Hermite 1655, Dagon's Downfall 1657, and tracts against the Quakers, and died in Bethnal Green.
Cradock, Christopher (1862–1914) English rear admiral. He commanded the cruiser squadron at the Battle of Coronel in 1914, which was sunk by the German squadron under Admiral von Spee; Cradock went down in his flagship, the Good Hope.
Craig, James (1871–1940) (1st Viscount Craigavon) Ulster Unionist politician; first prime minister of Northern Ireland 1921–40. Elected to Westminster as MP for East Down 1906–18 (Mid‐Down 1918–21), he was a highly effective organizer of the Ulster Volunteers and unionist resistance to home rule before World War I. In 1921 he succeeded Edward Carson as leader of the Ulster Unionist Party, and was appointed prime minister later that year. As leader of the Northern Ireland government he carried out systematic discrimination against the Catholic minority, abolishing proportional representation in 1929 and redrawing constituency boundaries to ensure Protestant majorities. Although a stockbroker by trade, Craig took part in the Boer War as captain of the Royal Irish Rifles in South Africa 1900–01. He saw active service in World War I, before serving for a period as a parliamentary secretary 1917–21 in Lloyd George's coalition government. He was knighted in 1918 and made Viscount Craigavon in 1927.
Cranmer, Thomas (1489–1556) English cleric, archbishop of Canterbury from 1533. A Protestant convert, he helped to shape the doctrines of the Church of England under Edward VI. He was responsible for the issue of the Prayer Books of 1549 and 1552, and supported the succession of Lady Jane Grey in 1553. Condemned for heresy under the Catholic Mary I, Cranmer at first recanted, declaring his former opinions to be wrong.
Page177 However, when his life was not spared, he resumed his position and was burned at the stake, first holding to the fire the hand that had signed his recantation. Cranmer
(Image © Billie Love)
A portrait of the English cleric Thomas Cranmer, painted by Gerlach Flicke, and found in the National Portrait Gallery in London. Cranmer was the first Protestant to be appointed Archbishop of Canterbury (in 1533, after annulling Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon). He was largely responsible for English liturgical reform, and for the compilation of the Book of Common Prayer (1549). He was tried for treason and heresy and burnt at the stake for supporting the succession of Lady Jane Grey.
Page178 Thomas Cranmer Archbishop of Canterbury 'This was the hand that wrote it, therefore it shall suffer punishment.' [At the stake, 21 March 1556]
Crawford and Balcarres, Earl of title of members of the Scottish family of Lindsay. The first of this name to settle in Scotland was probably Walter de Lindsay, an Anglo‐Norman baron of the reign of David I (1124–1153). The current holder of the title is Robert Alexander Lindsay, (1927–). The title will pass to his son, Anthony Robert Lindsay, (1958–). David, 5th Earl (c.1440–1495), became very powerful and was created Duke of Montrose in 1488 for his support of James III against the rebellious barons. John, 20th Earl (1702–1749), served with the Imperial army under Prince Eugène, then in Russia and Turkey. In 1747 he was appointed to the command of the Scots Greys, became lieutenant general, and fought at Dettingen and Fontenoy.
Crawfurd, Thomas (c. 1530–1603) Scottish soldier. He was taken prisoner by the English at the Battle of Pinkie in 1547 and afterwards helped bring the murderers of Lord Darnley to trial. During internal Scottish conflicts he took Dumbarton Castle in 1571, and forced Edinburgh Castle into surrender in 1573.
Creasy, Edward Shepherd (1812–1878) English historian and lawyer. He was appointed professor of history at London University in 1840 and was chief justice of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) 1860–70. His best‐known work is The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World 1851. He was knighted in 1860.
Creevey, Thomas (1768–1838) British Whig politician and diarist whose lively letters and journals give information about early 19th‐ century society and politics. He was a member of Parliament and opposed the slave trade.
Creighton, Mandell (1843–1901) English bishop and historian. He was bishop of Peterborough 1891–97, and bishop of London 1897–1901, and professor of ecclesiastical history at Cambridge University 1884–91. His works include a History of the Papacy during the Reformation Period 1881–94, Cardinal Wolsey 1888, and Queen Elizabeth 1896.
Cremer, William Randal (1838–1908) English trade unionist and pacifist politician. He founded the Amalgamated Society of Carpenters and Joiners in 1860, and the Inter‐Parliamentary Conferences on Peace and on Arbitration in 1889, and acted as secretary to the International Arbitration League for 37 years. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1903 for his advocacy of international arbitration, and he was knighted in 1907.
Crichton, James (1560–1582) Scottish scholar. He was known as 'the Admirable Crichton'
Page179 because of his extraordinary gifts as a poet, scholar, and linguist; he was also an athlete and fencer. According to one account he was killed in Mantua, Italy, in a street brawl by his pupil, a son of the Duke of Mantua, who resented Crichton's popularity. Crichton was born at Eliock, Dumfriesshire, and educated at St Andrews, where the young King James VI was a fellow pupil. He went to Paris in 1577, and at the university there is said to have issued a challenge to all men on all things, to be held in 12 different languages; he vanquished all his opponents.
Crick, Francis Harry Compton (1916–) English molecular biologist who was awarded a Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1962, together with Maurice Wilkins and James Watson, for the discovery of the double‐helical structure of DNA and of the significance of this structure in the replication and transfer of genetic information. Using Wilkins's and others' discoveries, Crick and Watson postulated that DNA consists of a double helix consisting of two parallel chains of alternate sugar and phosphate groups linked by pairs of organic bases. They built molecular models which also explained how genetic information could be coded – in the sequence of organic bases. Crick and Watson published their work on the proposed structure of DNA in 1953. Their model is now generally accepted as correct. DNA: Discovery of the Structure of DNA the first announcement 'We wish to suggest a structure for the salt of deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA). This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest.' So began a 900‐word article that was published in the journal Nature in April 1953. Its authors were British molecular biologist Francis Crick (1916–) and US biochemist James Watson (1928–). The article described the correct structure of DNA, a discovery that many scientists have called the most important since Austrian botanist and monk Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) laid the foundations of the science of genetics. DNA is the molecule of heredity, and by knowing its structure, scientists can see exactly how forms of life are transmitted from one generation to the next. the problem of inheritance The story of DNA really begins with British naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882). When, in November 1859, he published 'On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection' outlining his theory of evolution, he was unable to explain exactly how inheritance came about. For at that time it was believed that offspring inherited an average of the features of their parents. If this were so, as Darwin's critics pointed out, any remarkable features produced in a living organism by evolutionary processes would, in the natural course of events, soon disappear. The work of Gregor Mendel, only rediscovered 18 years after Darwin's death, provided a clear demonstration that inheritance was not a 'blending' process at all. His description of the mathematical basis to genetics followed years of careful plant‐breeding experiments. He concluded that each of the features he studied, such as colour or stem length, was determined by two 'factors' of inheritance, one coming from each parent. Each egg or sperm cell contained only one factor of each pair. In this way a particular factor, say for the colour red, would be preserved through subsequent generations.
Page180 genes Today, we call Mendel's factors genes. Through the work of many scientists, it came to be realized that genes are part of the chromosomes located in the nucleus of living cells and that DNA, rather than protein as was first thought, was a hereditary material. the double helix In the early 1950s, scientists realized that X‐ray crystallography, a method of using X‐rays to obtain an exact picture of the atoms in a molecule, could be successfully applied to the large and complex molecules found in living cells. It had been known since 1946 that genes consist of DNA. At King's College, London, New Zealand–British biophysicist Maurice Wilkins (1916–) had been using X‐ray crystallography to examine the structure of DNA, together with his colleague, British X‐ray crystallographer Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958), and had made considerable progress. While in Copenhagen, US scientist James Watson had realized that one of the major unresolved problems of biology was the precise structure of DNA. In 1952, he came as a young postdoctoral student to join the Medical Research Council Unit at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, where Francis Crick was already working. Convinced that a gene must be some kind of molecule, the two scientists set to work on DNA. Helped by the work of Wilkins, they were able to build an accurate model of DNA. They showed that DNA had a double helical structure, rather like a spiral staircase. Because the molecule of DNA was made from two strands, they envisaged that as a cell divides, the strands unravel, and each could serve as a template as new DNA was formed in the resulting daughter cells. Their model also explained how genetic information might be coded in the sequence of the simpler molecules of which DNA is comprised. Here for the first time was a complete insight into the basis of heredity. James Watson commented that this result was 'too pretty not to be true!' cracking the code Later, working with South African–British molecular biologist Sidney Brenner (1927–), Crick went on to work out the genetic code, and so ascribe a precise function to each specific region of the molecule of DNA. These triumphant results created a tremendous flurry of scientific activity around the world. The pioneering work of Crick, Wilkins, and Watson was recognized in the award of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1962. The unravelling of the structure of DNA led to a new scientific discipline, molecular biology, and laid the foundation stones for genetic engineering – a powerful new technique that is revolutionizing biology, medicine, and food production through the purposeful adaptation of living organisms. Francis Crick English molecular biologist 'If you want to understand function, study structure.' [What Mad Pursuit (1988)]
Page181 Cripps, (Richard) Stafford (1889–1952) British Labour politician, representing Bristol East 1931–52, and expelled from the Labour Party 1939–45 for supporting a 'Popular Front' against Chamberlain's appeasement policy. Prominent in the Socialist League during the 1930s, he was solicitor general 1930–31, ambassador to the USSR 1940–42, minister of aircraft production 1942–45, and chancellor of the Exchequer 1947–50. Knighted 1930. Born in London, Cripps was educated at Winchester and University College London. He was the son of the politician Charles Alfred Cripps (1852–1941), and of Theresa, the sister of Beatrice Webb. (Richard) Stafford Cripps British Labour politician 'Inducements of a material kind can never replace the spiritual urge ... from our sense of devotion to a cause which transcends our own personal interests.' [Address in a Birmingham church 11 May 1947]
Crockford, William (1775–1844) British gambler, founder in 1827 of Crockford's Club in St James's Street, which became the fashionable place for London society to gamble.
croft small farm in the Highlands of Scotland, traditionally farmed cooperatively with other crofters; the 1886 Crofters Act gave security of tenure to crofters. Today, although grazing land is still shared, arable land is typically enclosed. Crofting is the only form of subsistence farming found in the UK.
Croke, Thomas William (1824–1902) Irish churchman and prominent nationalist. As Roman Catholic Archbishop of Cashel and Emly, he promoted Irish cultural and political self‐determination through Charles Stewart Parnell's Land League. Croke Park, the Association's headquarters in Dublin, is named after him. Croke was born in Ballyclough, County Cork, and educated in Paris and Rome. He is reputed to have fought at the barricades in Paris during the Revolutions of 1848. A close friend of Cardinal Henry Manning, he was made a parish priest in 1867 and appointed Bishop of Auckland, New Zealand in 1870, before returning to Ireland in 1875. After the divorce scandal that ruined Parnell's political career, Croke urged his replacement as leader of the Irish nationalists in the Westminster parliament.
Croker, John Wilson (1780–1857) Irish politician and journalist. He was elected Tory member of Parliament for Downpatrick in 1807, and was secretary to the Admiralty 1809–30. He was a gifted debater and his articles in the Quarterly Review, begun in 1809, made him an influential exponent of Tory policy for 40
Page182 years.
Crommelin, Samuel Louis (1652–1727) French craftsman. A Huguenot, Crommelin emigrated to Ireland in 1699 after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, invited by King William III. He arrived in Lisburn, County Antrim, with 25 families, and began importing looms from Flanders and Holland. Under his supervision the linen industry developed and thrived in Ireland, and he raised the standard to a new level. As a result of his work exports in linen increased from 0.3 to 2.4 million yards between 1690 and 1720.
Crompton, Samuel (1753–1827) English inventor at the time of the Industrial Revolution. He developed the 'spinning mule' in 1779, combining the ideas of Richard Arkwright and James Hargreaves. This span a fine, continuous yarn and revolutionized the production of high‐quality cotton textiles. Crompton's invention was called the mule because it was a hybrid. It used the best from the spinning jenny and from Richard Arkwright's water frame of 1768. The strong, even yarn it produced was so fine that it could be used to weave delicate fabrics such as muslin, which became fashionable among the middle and upper classes, creating a new market for the British cotton trade. Spinning was taken out of the home and into the factories.
Crompton's mule advanced spinning machine which made the production of fine yarns by machine possible, developed in 1779 in Bolton, England, by Samuel Crompton. It was a cross between the spinning jenny and a water‐frame spinning machine. See also hand‐loom weavers.
Cromwell, Henry (1628–1674) English Parliamentarian, fourth son of Oliver Cromwell. He went to Ireland as a colonel in 1650, was one of the Irish representatives in the Barebones Parliament in 1653, and was lord deputy of Ireland 1657–58, and lieutenant and governor general 1658–59.
Cromwell, Oliver (1599–1658) English general and politician, Puritan leader of the Parliamentary side in the English Civil War. He raised cavalry forces (later called 'Ironsides'), which aided the victory at Marston Moor in 1644, and organized the New Model Army, which he led (with General Fairfax) to victory at Naseby in 1645. He declared Britain a republic (the Commonwealth) in 1649, following the execution of Charles I. As Lord Protector (ruler) from 1653, Cromwell established religious toleration and raised Britain's prestige in Europe on the basis of an alliance with France against Spain.
Page183 Cromwell
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page184 Oliver Cromwell, a painting attributed to Van Dyck. Lord Protector and virtual dictator of England after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell inherited a divided and war‐weary nation, to which he forcibly united Scotland and Ireland for the first time in their histories. His rule became associated with an unpopular type of Puritan zeal, and the Stuart Charles II was welcomed back by most of Britain after Cromwell's death. Cromwell
(Image © Billie Love)
Oliver Cromwell, in a portrait attributed to Anthony van Dyck. This was the year in which King Charles I was beheaded, and when Cromwell declared Britain a republic – the Commonwealth.
Page185 Oliver Cromwell English general and politician 'A few honest men are better than numbers.' [Letter to W Spring September 1643] Oliver Cromwell English general and politician 'A man who hath had his hand very deep in the blood of many innocent men.' [On Prince Rupert, in a letter, 1650] Oliver Cromwell English general and politician 'I beseech you, in the bowels of Christ, think it possible you may be mistaken.' [Letter to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland 3 August 1650] Oliver Cromwell English general and politician 'I had rather have a plain russet‐coated captain that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else.' [Letter to Sir William Spring 1643] Oliver Cromwell English general and politician 'It is not fit you should sit here any longer ! ... you shall give way to better men.' [Speech to the Rump Parliament April 1653]
Page186 Oliver Cromwell English general and politician 'Take away these baubles.' [Referring to the symbols of Parliamentary power when he dismissed Parliament in 1653]
Cromwell, Richard (1626–1712) Son of Oliver Cromwell, he succeeded his father as Lord Protector but resigned in May 1659, having been forced to abdicate by the army. He lived in exile after the Restoration until 1680, when he returned. Richard Cromwell Son of Oliver Cromwell 'I will not have a drop of blood spilt for the preservation of my greatness, which is a burden to me.' [Grant Uden (ed) Anecdotes from History 123]
Cromwell, Thomas (c. 1485–1540) (Earl of Essex) English politician who drafted the legislation that made the Church of England independent of Rome. Originally in Lord Chancellor Wolsey's service, he became secretary to Henry VIII in 1534 and the real director of government policy; he was executed for treason. He was created a baron in 1536. Cromwell had Henry divorced from Catherine of Aragon by a series of acts that proclaimed him head of the church. From 1536 to 1540 Cromwell suppressed the monasteries, ruthlessly crushed all opposition, and favoured Lutheranism. His mistake in arranging Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves (to cement an alliance with the German Protestant princes against France and the Holy Roman Empire) led to his being accused of treason and beheaded.
Page187 Cromwell
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page188 Thomas Cromwell succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Wolsey, as chief minister to Henry VIII. He fell from power after he arranged Henry's fourth marriage to Anne of Cleves, which Henry found less than satisfactory. Thomas, Earl of Essex Cromwell English politician 'I must now beseech your grace of pardon ... It much grieves me that I should be noted a traitor when I always had your laws on my breast, and that I should be a sacramentary. God he knoweth the truth, and that I am of the one and the other guiltless.' [Letter to Henry VIII from the Tower of London 1540] Henry VIII King of England 'On light pretexts, by false accusations, they made me put to death the most faithful servant I ever had.' [Six months after Cromwell's execution, quoted in Wriothesley Chronicle (1875) and Beckingsale Thomas Cromwell (1978)]
Cromwell's Irish campaign (1649–50) whirlwind military campaign conducted by the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell in Ireland August 1649– May 1650, following the victory of his Parliamentarians in the English Civil War (1641–49). He aimed to reassert English control over Ireland, where the Great Rebellion against Protestant English rule had erupted alongside the Civil War, and support for the Royalists had been high. The vengeful actions of Cromwell's army in Ireland, particularly the massacres at the battles of Drogheda and Wexford in 1649, have made his name synonymous with English oppression in the minds of Irish nationalists. His campaign effectively ended the military opposition to English parliamentary rule.
Crosland, (Charles) Anthony (Raven) (1918–1977) British Labour politician, president of the Board of Trade 1967–69, secretary of state for local government and regional planning 1969–70, secretary of state for the environment 1974–76, and foreign secretary 1976–77. He entered Harold Wilson's first government in 1964, and after holding junior office, he entered the cabinet as secretary of state for education.
Cross, Richard Assheton Cross, 1st Viscount Cross (1823–1914) English Conservative politician. He was appointed home secretary in 1874 with a seat in the cabinet, and was responsible for carrying through much notable social legislation, including the Artisans' Dwellings Act of 1875 (known as the Cross Act) which provided for the
Page189 first slum clearances; also the Factory Act 1875, and the Public Health Act 1875. He was made a viscount in 1886.
Crossman, Richard Howard Stafford (1907–1974) British Labour politician. He was minister of housing and local government 1964–66 and of health and social security 1968–70. His posthumous 'Crossman Papers' (1975) revealed confidential cabinet discussions. Richard Crossman British Labour politician 'By yesterday morning British troops were patrolling the streets of Belfast. I fear that once Catholics and Protestants get used to our presence they will hate us more than they hate each other.' [Diaries 17 August 1969] Richard Crossman British Labour politician 'Whitehall envelops me.' [Diary entry after his first week in Cabinet 22 October 1964]
Crowley, Aleister (Edward Alexander) (1875–1947) British occultist, a member of the theosophical Order of the Golden Dawn; he claimed to practise black magic, and his books include the novel Diary of a Drug Fiend (1923). He designed a tarot pack that bears his name. Aleister Crowley British occultist 'Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law.' [Aleister Crowley Book of the Law 1909]
Culloden, Battle of defeat in 1746 of the Jacobite rebel army of the British prince Charles Edward Stuart (the 'Young Pretender') by the Duke of Cumberland on a stretch of moorland in Inverness‐shire, Scotland. This battle effectively ended the military challenge of the Jacobite rebellion.
Page190 Cumberland, William Augustus (1721–1765) (Duke of Cumberland) British general who ended the Jacobite rising in Scotland with the Battle of Culloden in 1746; his brutal repression of the Highlanders earned him the nickname of 'Butcher'. Third son of George II, he was created Duke of Cumberland in 1726. He fought in the War of the Austrian Succession at Dettingen in 1743 and Fontenoy in 1745. In the Seven Years' War he surrendered with his army at Kloster‐Zeven in 1757. KCB 1725, Duke 1726. William Augustus Cumberland British general 'All the good we have done this day is a little blood‐letting, which has only weakened this madness, not cured it.' [Letter 29 June 1746, referring to the Battle of Culloden] William Augustus Cumberland British general 'I am now in a country so much our enemy that there is hardly any intelligence to be got, and whenever we do procure any it is the business of the country to have it contradicted.' [Letter from Scotland 1746]
Cumming variant spelling of Comyn, a Norman family that came to England with William the Conqueror.
Cumyn variant spelling of Comyn, a Norman family that came to England with William the Conqueror.
Cunedda, Wledig British chieftain. He came with his sons and followers from Scotland to northwest Wales to defend Britain against barbarian invaders from Ireland. He laid the foundations of the kingdom of Gwynedd, which was named after him.
Cunningham, Alan Gordon (1887–1983) British general of World War II. Although he led the British offensive against the Italians in Ethiopia 1940–41 with great success, Cunningham failed to show his usual drive during Operation Crusader when he was commander of the British 8th Army. He was relieved of his post by Field Marshal Auchinleck and spent the rest of the war in administrative posts before becoming the last High Commissioner in Palestine. Knighted 1941.
Cunningham, John (1917–) British air ace of World War II. He was among the first
Page191 pilots to be given airborne radar for night fighting. His successes with this led to his nickname 'Cats‐Eyes Cunningham', a public relations stunt to conceal the fact that radar was in use.
Cunninghame‐Graham, Robert Bontine (1852–1936) Scottish writer, politician, and adventurer. He wrote many travel books based on his experiences in Texas and Argentina 1869–83 and in Spain and Morocco 1893–98. He became the first president of the Scottish Labour Party in 1888 and the first president of the Scottish National Party in 1928.
Cunobelin King of the Catuvellauni; see Cymbeline.
curia regis (or the King's court) government by institutions of the royal court or household. In medieval times there was no separation of powers, and administrative and judicial powers were controlled by the court. Although some institutions such as the exchequer, which collected taxes, or the chancery, which drew up official government documents, eventually 'went out of court' to become fixed departments of state, they were often replaced by miniature versions of the original office which remained under direct royal supervision, such as the privy seal. The court only really ceased to be the main administrative centre of the country in the 18th century, but it retained considerable political influence into the 19th century. The most notable modern remnant of the court system is the Privy Council.
Curragh 'Mutiny' demand in March 1914 by the British general Hubert Gough and his officers, stationed at Curragh, Ireland, that they should not be asked to take part in forcing Protestant Ulster to participate in home rule. They were subsequently allowed to return to duty, and after World War I the solution of partition was adopted.
Curzon, George Nathaniel (1859–1925) (1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston) British Conservative politician, viceroy of India 1899–1905. During World War I, he was a member of the cabinet 1916–19. As foreign secretary 1919–24, he negotiated the Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey. As viceroy of India, Curzon introduced various reforms, including the creation of the North‐West Frontier Province, reorganization of Indian finance, and the establishment of the imperial cadet corps. He resigned this post in 1905, after a dispute with Horatio Kitchener, commander of the British forces in India. George Curzon British Conservative politician 'The British Empire is under Providence the greatest instrument for good that the world has seen.' [Dedication of his book Problems of the Far East]
Cutty Sark British sailing ship, built in 1869, one of the tea clippers that used to
Page192 compete in the 19th century to see which clippers could bring its cargo most quickly from China to Britain. The name, meaning 'short chemise', comes from the witch in Robert Burns's poem 'Tam O'Shanter'. The biennial Cutty Sark International Tall Ships Race is named after it. The ship is preserved in dry dock at Greenwich, London.
Cymbeline (or Cunobelin) (lived 1st century AD) King of the Catuvellauni (AD 5–40), who fought unsuccessfully against the Roman invasion of Britain. His capital was at Colchester.
D Dál Cais in Irish history, a powerful Munster kingdom which rose to power in the second half of the 10th century. It peaked and fell within the reign of Brian Bóruma, who at the start of the 11th century became in effect Ireland's first high king from a dynasty other than the Uí Néill. Originally part of the Déisi kingdom which settled in what is now eastern County Clare, the Dál Cais began its rise to power in the 9th century, largely through the strategic position it held at the lower reaches of the Shannon River. It seized the kingship of Munster in 963 by defeating the reigning Munster power the Eóganachta, and furthered its dominance in Ireland, mainly through several victories over theVikings of Limerick. After Brian Bóruma's death the Dál Cais lost much of the authority it had gained, and reclaimed only a short time of power in the reigns of Brian's grandson, Tairdelbach Ua Briain, who died in 1086 and great‐grandson, Muirchertach Ua Briain, who died in 1119.
Dalhousie, James Andrew Broun Ramsay (1812–1860) (1st Marquess and 10th Earl of Dalhousie) British administrator, governor general of India 1848–56. In the second Sikh War he annexed the Punjab in 1849, and, following the second Burmese War, Lower Burma in 1853. He reformed the Indian army and civil service and furthered social and economic progress. He succeeded to earldom in 1838 and was made a marquess in 1849.
Dalriada in Ireland, the ancient name of the northern district of County Antrim now known as the Route. The Dalriads were, by tradition, descendants of Riada of the Long Wrist, chief of the Gaelic Scots.
Dalriada ancient name of part of Argyll, in the Strathclyde region, west Scotland, settled by the Dalriads of Ireland in about 498. They were defeated at Magh Rath, County Down, Ireland, in 637 by the Irish royal dynasty of Uí Néill, but in 843 united with the Picts, under Kenneth MacAlpin, and formed the kingdom of the Scots of Alban in south and central western Scotland.
Dalrymple, David, Lord Hailes (1726–1792) Scottish judge and historian. He became judge
Page193 of the Court of Session as Lord Hailes in 1766, but is chiefly remembered for his Annals of Scotland 1776, which deals with the period 1057–1371. He was the great‐grandson of the 1st Viscount Stair (1619–1695).
Dalton, (Edward) Hugh (John Neale) (1887–1962) (Baron Dalton) British Labour politician and economist, born in Wales. Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1945, he oversaw nationalization of the Bank of England, but resigned in 1947 after making a disclosure to a lobby correspondent before a budget speech. Baron 1960.
Dalyell (or Dalzell), Thomas (c. 1599–1685) Scottish soldier. A Royalist, he fought in Ireland in the 1640s and against the Commonwealth army at Worcester in 1651, but after this final defeat in the Civil War he went to serve in the Russian army as lieutenant general. He returned to Scotland at the Restoration and was commander‐in‐chief of the Scots army 1661–85, defeating the Covenanters in 1666.
Dalzell variant spelling of Thomas Dalyell, Scottish soldier.
dame school in Britain, former school for young children run singlehanded by an elderly woman. They dated from the 17th century, and were mainly in rural areas. The standard of instruction was generally very low. Such schools were often satirized in 18th‐ and 19th‐century literature.
Damnii variant spelling of Damnonii, early inhabitants of the British Isles.
Damnonii (or Dumnonii or Damnii) a British people inhabiting the western peninsula (modern Devon and Cornwall) at the time of the Roman invasions, with Isca Dumnoniorum (modern Exeter) as their capital. Another people of the same name lived in Scotland, inhabiting the western part of Fife and Kinross.
Danby, Thomas Osborne (1631–1712) (1st Earl of Danby) British Tory politician. He entered Parliament 1665, acted as Charles II's chief minister 1673–78 and was created earl of Danby 1674, but was imprisoned in the Tower of London 1678–84. In 1688 he signed the invitation to William of Orange to take the throne. Succeeded to baronetcy 1647. Danby was again chief minister 1690–95, and in 1694 was created Duke of Leeds.
danegeld in English history, a tax imposed from 991 onwards by Anglo‐Saxon kings to pay tribute to the Vikings. After the Norman Conquest (1066), the tax was revived and was levied until 1162; the Normans used it to finance military operations. Danegeld was first exacted in the reign of Ethelred (II) the Unready (978–1016). This payment was distinct from the tax
Page194 known as heregeld, which was levied annually between 1012 and 1051 to pay for a mercenary squadron of Danish ships in English service and to maintain a standing army.
Danelaw 11th‐century name for the area of northern and eastern England settled by the Vikings in the 9th century. It occupied about half of England, from the River Tees to the River Thames. Within its bounds, Danish law, customs, and language prevailed, rather than West Saxon or Mercian law. Its linguistic influence is still apparent in place names in this area. The Danelaw was not uniformly settled. Danish colonists congregated more densely in some areas than in others – in particular in Yorkshire, around Lincoln, Stamford, Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, and in Norfolk. Danelaw
(Image © Research Machines plc)
Page195 Dangerfield, Thomas (c. 1650–1685) English criminal and conspirator. Taking advantage of the panic created by the Popish Plot, he pretended to have discovered the so‐called 'Meal‐tub Plot' against Charles II. He was convicted of perjury in 1685 and died the same year.
Darby, Abraham (1677–1717) English iron manufacturer who developed a process for smelting iron ore using coke instead of the more expensive and scarce charcoal (1709). He employed the cheaper iron to cast strong thin pots for domestic use, and after his death it was used for the huge cylinders required by the new steam pumping‐engines. In 1779 his grandson Abraham Darby (1750–1791)constructed the world's first iron bridge, over the River Severn at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire.
Darcy, Patrick (1598–1668) Irish lawyer and politician. An expert in constitutional matters, Darcy argued strongly for the legislative independence of the Irish parliament. As a Catholic, he was debarred from practising and from owning land during Oliver Cromwell's colonization of Ireland. Born in Galway, the seventh son of a Roman Catholic baronet of English descent, Darcy sat for Navan, County Meath, in the Irish parliament of 1634. He rose to prominence by 1640, and following the uprising of 1641 supported his fellow Irish Catholics in the Confederation of Kilkenny. He was negotiator for the Catholic Confederates with Charles I's deputy Ormond in 1649, and was then made a commissioner of the peace throughout Ireland, an appointment that lasted until the arrival of Cromwell. Following the Cromwellian victories, Darcy left politics but continued to pursue his legal career until his death.
Dardanelles Commission British Royal Commission appointed 1916 to enquire into the failure of the Dardanelles and Gallipoli expeditions in World War I.
Darling, Grace Horsley (1815–1842) English heroine. She was the daughter of a lighthouse keeper on the Farne Islands, off Northumberland. On 7 September 1838 the Forfarshire was wrecked, and Grace Darling and her father rowed through a storm to the wreck, saving nine lives. She was awarded a medal for her bravery.
Darnley, Henry Stewart or Stuart, Lord Darnley (1545–1567) English aristocrat, second husband of Mary Queen of Scots from 1565, and father of James I of England (James VI of Scotland). On the advice of her secretary, David Rizzio, Mary refused Darnley the crown matrimonial; in revenge, Darnley led a band of nobles who murdered Rizzio in Mary's presence. Darnley was assassinated in 1567. He was knighted and became Earl of Ross and Duke of Albany in 1565.
Dartmouth, George Legge, Baron Dartmouth (1648–1691) English admiral. James II commanded
Page196 him to prevent the landing of William (III) of Orange, but he took no action and later swore allegiance to William and Mary. In 1691 he was arrested for treason.
Dashwood, Francis, 15th Baron Le Despencer (1708–1781) English politician. He founded the infamous brotherhood of the Monks of Medmenham (the 'Hell Fire Club') in the 1740s, was a member of Parliament 1741–63, and made an incompetent chancellor of the Exchequer 1762–63.
David two kings of Scotland:
David I (1084–1153) King of Scotland from 1124. The youngest son of Malcolm III Canmore and St Margaret, he was brought up in the English court of Henry I, and in 1113 married Matilda, widow of the 1st earl of Northampton. He invaded England in 1138 in support of Queen Matilda, but was defeated at Northallerton in the Battle of the Standard, and again in 1141.
David II (1324–1371) King of Scotland from 1329, son of Robert (I) the Bruce. David was married at the age of four to Joanna, daughter of Edward II of England. In 1346 David invaded England, was captured at the battle of Neville's Cross, and imprisoned for 11 years.
Davies, Christian (1667–1739) (called 'Mother Ross') Irish woman who won fame by spending some years in military service, masquerading as a man. Born in Dublin, Davies went to Flanders in search of her husband, Richard Welsh, who had been conscripted into the Duke of Marlborough's army during the War of the Spanish Succession. There she enlisted under the name of Christopher Welsh, fought in the Battle of Blenheim (1704), and was eventually reunited with her husband in 1706. When Davies's first husband Richard was killed at the Battle of Malplaquet (1709) she married a grenadier, Hugh Jones, who was killed the following year. In England she was presented to Queen Anne, and then returned to Dublin, where she married another soldier. She died in a Chelsea Pensioners' Hospital for retired soldiers.
Davies, Sarah Emily (1830–1921) English feminist and educational reformer. A vigorous advocate of higher education for women, she founded a small college for women students at Hitchin in 1869, which was transferred to Cambridge as Girton College in 1873. She also campaigned for London degrees for women, which were granted in 1874. Davies was a member of the London School Board 1870–73, and became mistress of Girton College 1873–75, and honorary secretary 1882– 1904. Her birthplace was Southampton.
Davison, William (c. 1541–1608) Scottish secretary to Queen Elizabeth I. He brought the warrant for the execution of Mary Queen of Scots to Elizabeth for her signature and was afterwards used as a scapegoat to carry the blame for the execution. Elizabeth alleged that Davison had gone beyond his instructions and acted overhastily in passing on the warrant to be acted
Page197 on; that he should have kept it until futher notice. He was fined and imprisoned for two years.
Davitt, Michael (1846–1906) Irish nationalist. He joined the Fenians (forerunners of the Irish Republican Army) in 1865, and was imprisoned for treason 1870–77. After his release, he and the politician Charles Parnell founded the Land League in 1879. Davitt was jailed several times for land‐reform agitation. He was a member of Parliament 1895–99, advocating the reconciliation of extreme and constitutional nationalism.
Davy, Humphry (1778–1829) English chemist. He discovered, by electrolysis, the metallic elements sodium and potassium in 1807, and calcium, boron, magnesium, strontium, and barium in 1808. In addition, he established that chlorine is an element and proposed that hydrogen is present in all acids. He invented the safety lamp for use in mines where methane was present, enabling miners to work in previously unsafe conditions. He was knighted for his work in 1812 and made baronet in 1818. Davy's experiments on electrolysis of aqueous (water‐based) solutions from 1800 led him to suggest its large‐scale use in the alkali industry. He proposed the theory that the mechanism of electrolysis could be explained in terms of substances that have opposite electric charges, which could be arranged on a scale of relative affinities – the foundation of the modern electrochemical series. His study of the alkali metals provided proof of French chemist Antoine Lavoisier's idea that all alkalis contain oxygen. Humphry Davy's Discoveries introduction In 1793, the headmaster at Penzance Grammar School, Cornwall, England, told Humphry Davy that he was lazy. Yet Davy went on to become one of the best‐known chemists of his time. He discovered six previously unknown elements, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, barium, and strontium. He won many scientific honours, and was knighted in 1812 by Prince Regent – the King, George III, was insane and could not carry out the investiture. He was even awarded a prize established by Napoleon Bonaparte, at a time when England and France were at war. He became wealthy – in 1811 he was paid a very large sum of money for a course of lectures in Ireland. Not bad for a lazy schoolboy! the safety lamp Davy became a household name when he solved the problem of explosions in coal mines. The only illumination in the coal mines of the time was naked flames in lamps. The danger of explosions in some mines was very real, especially as mines were worked at deeper levels underground. The heat of the flame would ignite the mixture of air, coal dust, and fire damp (methane) found in the mines, causing an explosion. In 1815, within six months of being asked to devise a safe lamp, Davy had the solution. He discovered that the heat of a candle flame would not pass along a narrow metal tube, as the metal conducted the heat away. This meant that a mixture of air and coal dust at one end of the tube could not be ignited by a candle at the other end. Applying this discovery, Davy completely surrounded the flame of a lamp with a piece of metal gauze. The gauze acted as a huge number of short metal tubes and conducted the heat of the flame away from the explosive gas outside the lamp. The gas was not heated by the lamp and did not explode. The gauze did not block the light from the lamp. The new lamp was adopted widely and saved many lives. In appreciation, the mine owners of Tyne and Wear in Northeast England honoured Davy with a
Page198 valuable gold plate. The Davy lamp meant that they could work coal seams previously thought too dangerous. uses for nitrous oxide Numerous other achievements can be attributed to this great scientist. He investigated the effect of breathing the gas nitrous oxide. It was thought at the time that the gas had the power to spread diseases. Davy decided to test the gas on himself and breathed two quarts from a silk bag. He found that the gas made him feel drunk, in a pleasant sort of way. When his friends breathed the gas, some laughed uncontrollably, so the gas became known as laughing gas. Davy also noticed that the gas eased the pain of a toothache he had been suffering. He commented: 'as nitrous oxide appears to destroy pain it may probably be used to advantage during surgical operations'. This suggestion was not taken up for another 45 years, when it was used by a US dentist, Horace Wells, as an anaesthetic. other inventions Davy also introduced a chemical approach to agriculture, the tanning industry and mineralogy; he designed an arc lamp for illumination, an electrolytic process for the desalination of sea water, and a method of cathodic protection for the copper‐clad ships of the day by connecting them to zinc plates. But his genius has been described as flawed. At his best, he was a scientist of great perception, a painstaking laboratory worker, and a brilliant lecturer. At other times, he was disorganized, readily distracted, and prone to hasty decisions and arguments. He was snobbish, over‐excitable, suspicious, and ungenerous to those he saw as scientific rivals. In 1824 he tried to block the election of his protégé Michael Faraday to the Royal Society, even after Faraday had demonstrated his genius by devising the first simple electric motor and discovering benzene. Ironically, many regard Faraday as Davy's finest discovery. later success In 1824, the people of Penzance decided to honour Davy. The local newspaper reported: 'At the general meeting in Penzance it was unanimously resolved that a public dinner be given to Sir Humphry Davy at the Union Hotel in Chapel Street, and that the Mayor be required to wait on him forthwith.' Later they wrote: 'Every heart, tongue, and eye were as one to do honour to him who had not only rendered the name of their town as famous and imperishable as science itself, but who had added lustre to the intellectual character of their country and ... who is one of the happy few who can claim to be permanent benefactors to the human race.' It is not recorded whether his old headmaster was present!
Page199 Davy
(Image © Billie Love)
Page200 A portrait of the English chemist Humphry Davy, c. 1810. Best known for his pioneering experiments in electrochemistry and for his invention of the miner's safety lamp, called the Davy lamp, he also discovered the anaesthetic properties of laughing gas. Humphry Davy English chemist 'The eternal laws Preserve one glorious wise design; Order amidst confusion flows, And all the system is divine.' [From Davy's notebooks at the Royal Institution]
Deakin, Arthur (1890–1955) English trade union leader. He became national secretary of the General Workers' Group of the Transport and General Workers' Union in 1932, and succeeded Ernest Bevin as general secretary of the union 1940–55. He was a constant opponent of communism within his own union and the trade‐union movement as a whole.
Deane, Richard (1610–1653) English Parliamentary commander, admiral, and general at sea. He fought with the Parliamentary army during the Civil War in Cornwall and at the battles of Naseby, Preston, and Worcester. He was one of the commissioners for the trial of King Charles I and signed the death warrant. In 1653 he was appointed joint commander with Robert Blake and George Monck during the naval war with the Netherlands, and lost his life at the first battle off the northern Foreland, Kent.
dean of guild head of one of the numerous trade guilds in Scottish burghs prior to the Burgh Reform Act of 1834 . Their function was to act as arbiter in all mercantile and maritime affairs within the burgh. Subsequently the dean of guild was mainly concerned with regulating the erection of suitable buildings and condemning those unfit for habitation.
Declaration of Indulgence in Britain, statement of government policy issued by order of the monarch with the aim of giving a lead to public opinion on religious tolerance.
Declaration of Rights in Britain, the statement issued by the Convention Parliament in February 1689, laying down the conditions under which the crown was to be offered to William III and Mary. Its clauses were later incorporated in the Bill of Rights.
Page201 Declaratory Act legislation enacted by the British Parliament on 18 March 1766, in conjunction with the repeal of the Stamp Act, that asserted its authority to govern the American colonies. Americans were overjoyed by the repeal of the Stamp Act, which created a system of internal taxation. The Declaratory Act, however, actually strengthened the law‐making powers of the British in the American colonies. The act asserted the British Parliament's legal authority 'in all cases whatsoever'.
De Facto Act in Britain, statute of 1495 protecting the property rights of those who served any current or 'de facto' monarch. The measure reassured both former Yorkist supporters of Richard III that they would be safe from political recriminations and those who supported Henry VII but had little certainty that his dynasty would survive that they would not suffer from backing the new regime.
Defence of the Realm Act act granting emergency powers to the British government August 1914. The Act, popularly known as DORA, was revised several times in World War I and allowed the government to requisition raw materials, control labour, and censor cables and foreign correspondence. It was superseded by the Emergency Powers Act 1920.
Defender of the Faith one of the titles of the English sovereign, conferred on Henry VIII in 1521 by Pope Leo X in recognition of the king's treatise against the Protestant Martin Luther. It appears on coins in the abbreviated form F.D. (Latin Fidei Defensor).
Defenders Irish Catholic secret society that emerged in County Armagh in the mid‐1780s in opposition to the Protestant Peep o'Day Boys. In 1795 a large Defender force drawn from several counties was defeated by Protestants at the Battle of the Diamond, County Armagh, after which the Protestants formed the Orange Order. In the same year the United Irishmen allied themselves with the Defenders as part of their plan for armed rebellion. The Defender movement survived the Rebellion of 1798 and re‐emerged in the 19th century as the Ribbonmen. More than a grass‐roots protest group, the Defenders soon developed a sense of political awareness as well as organizational structures copied from freemasonry. Defenderism spread from Armagh into adjacent counties in 1789, and reached Dublin and Connaught in the early 1790s.
Deheubarth southern Welsh kingdom which resisted English domination until the reign of Edward I. Its name derives from the Latin dextralis pars (i.e. 'the right‐hand side') of Wales and it comprised most of southern Wales, apart from Monmouthshire and Glamorgan. The kingdom was consolidated during the 9th and 10th centuries by a series of strong and capable rulers such as Seisyll and Hywel Dda. It succeeded in holding off the Normans, although with some setbacks, until Henry II of England recognized the kingdom's independence under the leadership of Rhys ap Gruffydd (1155–97). Squabbling among his descendants left the kingdom open to subjugation and it was absorbed by 1277 when Edward I of England was accepted as overlord of Wales.
Deira 6th‐century Anglo‐Saxon kingdom in central and eastern Yorkshire, stretching from the Tees to the Humber. It was powerful enough for Pope Gregory I to know of its king Aelle c. 560. It was annexed by
Page202 the kingdom of Bernicia to the north 588, but Aelle's son exiled Edwin returned and defeated the Bernician king to form the united kingdom of Northumbria 616.
Dell, Edmund (1921–1999) British Labour politician. Between 1966 and 1970 he was successively parliamentary under‐secretary, Department of Economic Affairs, minister of state at the Board of Trade, and minister of state at the Department of Employment and Productivity. He was chair of the Public Accounts Committee 1973–74, paymaster‐general 1974–76, secretary of state for Trade 1976–79, and founder chairman of Channel 4 television 1980–87.
Dempsey, Miles Christopher (1896–1969) British general. He commanded an infantry brigade in France 1939–40, then took command of an armoured division June 1941. In 1942 he was in command of XIII Corps in both Sicily and Italy. He returned to Britain 1944 and took command of the British 2nd Army for the D‐day invasion, leading them through northwestern Europe to the final surrender. He then became commander‐in‐chief of Allied Forces in Southeast Asia, a post he held until the end of the war. KCB 1944.
Denman, Gertrude Mary (1884–1954) (born Gertrude Pearson) English founder of the National Federation of Women's Institutes. Chair of the federation from its formation in 1917 to 1946, she also helped to establish the National Birth Control (later Family Planning) Association, the Cowdray Club for Nurses and Professional Women, and the Women's Land Army. In 1915 Denman chaired a sub‐committee of the Agricultural Organization Society which that year had founded the Women's Institutes. When the institutes were transferred to the Board of Agriculture in 1917, she insisted they should be self‐governing, and the National Federation of Women's Institutes was formed. She was later appointed director of the Women's Land Army in 1939, but resigned in 1945 after the government refused to give the Land Army the grants being received by women in the civil defence and armed services.
Derby, Edward (George Geoffrey Smith) Stanley (1799–1869) (14th Earl of Derby) British politician. He was leader of the Conservative Party 1846–68 and prime minister 1852, 1858–59, and 1866–68, each time as head of a minority government. Originally a Whig, he became secretary for the colonies in 1830, and introduced the bill for the abolition of slavery. He joined the Tories in 1834, serving as secretary for war and the colonies in Peel's government. Derby was a protectionist and the split the Tory party over Peel's free‐trade policy gave him the leadership for 20 years. During his third adminstration, the second Reform Act (1867) was passed. He inherited the title of Lord Stanley in 1834, became a peer in 1844, and succeeded to the earldom in 1851. Born in Knowsley Park, Lancashire, Derby was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, and entered Parliament as a Whig 1820. Sympathetic to the liberal Tories, he was briefly undersecretary for the Colonies 1827–28 under Goderich. As chief secretary for Ireland 1830–33, he was responsible for much legislation, including the innovative Irish Education Act 1831. As colonial secretary 1833–34, he introduced the bill which abolished slavery in the British Empire, but, by the time it became law, he had resigned over a measure relating to the finances of the Church of Ireland. He again drifted away from the Whigs and finally joined the Conservatives in 1841, when he agreed to serve as colonial secretary under Robert Peel. When Peel demanded the abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846, Derby resigned, protesting that protective tariffs were essential
Page203 to preserve British agriculture and the power of the landowning classes. When the Conservative Party split over the issue, Stanley emerged as leader of the larger protectionist section – more or less by default, as nearly all the other senior figures in the party remained faithful to Peel despite his rejection by the backbenchers. The following two decades were a time of loose party discipline and confused party loyalties. The Whigs were dominant, and Derby was prime minister only during the brief intervals when Whig coalitions fell apart. His supporters could never quite form a majority on their own. In practice, Derby did not attempt to revive protection, but made repeated efforts to secure either a reunion with the Peelites or a deal with Palmerston and the more conservative Whigs. He did not succeed in either strategy. His first ministry lasted only ten months in 1852. His second, lasting 16 months 1858–59, passed the act which transferred the administration of India from the East India Company to the Crown. During his final premiership 1866–68, his health was poor. The Second Reform Act 1867 was largely the work of Benjamin Disraeli: Derby thought that giving the vote to working‐class householders was 'taking a leap in the dark'. Edward Stanley Derby British prime minister 'The duty of an Opposition (is) very simple – to oppose everything, and propose nothing.' [Speech in House of Commons 4 June 1841]
Derby, Edward George Villiers Stanley, 17th Earl of Derby (1865–1948) British Conservative politician, member of Parliament from 1892. He was secretary of war 1916–18 and 1922–24, and ambassador to France 1918–20. Derby became financial secretary to the War Office in 1900, and was appointed postmaster general in 1903. As director general of recruiting 1915–16, during World War I, he organized the 'Derby Scheme' of voluntary enlistment.
De Robeck, John Michael (1862–1928) British admiral in World War I. He commanded British naval forces at Gallipoli, directing operations off the coast until the evacuation 1916. In 1919 he became commander‐in‐chief in the Mediterranean and high commissioner at Constantinople.
Derwentwater, James Radcliffe, 3rd Earl of Derwentwater (1689–1716) English Jacobite. He was a leader in the rebellion of 1715 and was captured after the rout at Preston, confined to the Tower of London, and executed for treason.
Desbarres, Joseph Frederick Walsh (1722–1824) English military engineer and administrator who was prominent in the conquest of Canada. He later became lieutenant‐governor of Cape Breton (1784–1805), and Prince Edward Island (1805–13).
Page204 Desborough, John (1608–1680) English soldier and politician. A Parliamentarian in the English Civil War, he sat in Oliver Cromwell's House of Lords and after Cromwell's death became a strong partisan of Charles Fleetwood. He was imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1660 and 1666 for alleged intrigues against Charles II. He married Jane, the sister of Oliver Cromwell, in 1636.
Desmond, Earl of Former Irish aristocratic title. Along with the territory of County Kerry, it was first conferred on Maurice Fitzthomas (or Fitzgerald) in 1329, while the last holder was James Fitzgerald, the 15th earl of Desmond, in the late 16th century. In 1579–80, Gerald Fitzgerald, 14th Earl of Desmond, led a rebellion against Queen Elizabeth I. He sacked the town of Youghal and murdered the inhabitants, was proclaimed a traitor, and became a fugitive for over two years. Fitzgerald was finally killed by bounty hunters in a cabin in the Kerry Mountains in 1583. Though the earldom passed to his son, the lands attached to it were forfeited after the rebellion and were resettled as the 'Munster plantation' by new arrivals from England.
Desmond see Fitzgerald family.
Desmond revolt two Catholic rebellions against Protestant rule in Ireland in 1569 and 1579, sparked by the proposed plantations of Munster and Connacht by Protestants. The Geraldine Clan rose in protest, led by Sir James Fitzmaurice, a cousin of the Earl of Desmond. The revolt was suppressed in 1573 and Fitzmaurice fled overseas. He settled in Lisbon but returned in 1579 to lead another Geraldine uprising, but was soon killed. Gerald Fitzgerald, 15th Earl of Desmond took up arms, with some military assistance from Philip II of Spain and Pope Gregory XIII, but the revolt was crushed and the Earl killed in 1583. In the aftermath of the revolt, plantations were undertaken all the more vigorously in Kerry and Limerick, further alienating the Irish from the royal administration.
Despard, Edward Marcus (1751–1803) Irish naval officer and colonial administrator, who was executed for leading a conspiracy against British rule in Ireland. After serving in various posts in Central America 1772–90, including the governorship of Belize, he was recalled, dismissed, and briefly imprisoned. After his release, his plotting against the government led to his conviction on charges of high treason. Despard was born in Queen's County, Ireland, and entered military service at the age of 15. The reason for his two‐year imprisonment (1798–1800) is not certain, though it is thought he may have been involved in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. The 1803 conspiracy entailed assassinating the king and seizing the Tower of London and the Bank of England. Despard and his six fellow traitors were drawn on a hurdle, hanged, and beheaded.
Despard, Mrs Charlotte (1844–1939) (born Charlotte French) English suffragette and social reformer. She was a poor law guardian, a socialist orator, and an extreme pacifist during World War I. Afterwards she lived in Dublin, where she was a strong supporter of Éamon de Valera. She was a
Page205 sister of John French, 1st Earl of Ypres.
Despard Plot plot 1802 led by Irish conspirator Edward M Despard (1751–1803) to seize the Tower of London and the Bank of England and assassinate King George III. The affair embarrassed the government not so much because of the seriousness of the plot itself, but because Admiral Nelson spoke in defence of the conspirators. Despard was executed on 21 February 1803. He and his fellow conspirators were the last people in England to be sentenced to be hanged, drawn, and quartered.
Despencer, Baron Le title of Francis Dashwood, 15th Baron Le Despencer.
Despenser, Hugh Le, Earl of Winchester (1262–1326) English courtier and favourite of King Edward II. He and his son (also Hugh) dominated Edward after the death of his former favourite, Piers Gaveston, in 1312. Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, had both father and son banished in 1321 but Edward recalled them the following year. They were both executed by Queen Isabella.
de Valera, Éamon (1882–1975) Irish nationalist politician, president/Taoiseach (prime minister) of the Irish Free State/Eire/Republic of Ireland 1932–48, 1951–54, and 1957–59, and president 1959–73. Repeatedly imprisoned, de Valera participated in the Easter Rising of 1916 and was leader of the nationalist Sinn Fein party 1917–26, when he formed the republican Fianna Fáil party. He opposed the Anglo‐Irish Treaty (1921) but formulated a constitutional relationship with Britain in the 1930s that achieved greater Irish sovereignty. De Valera was born in New York, the son of a Spanish father and an Irish mother, and sent to Ireland as a child. After studying at Blackrock College and the Royal University at Dublin, he became a teacher of mathematics, French, and Latin in various colleges. He was sentenced to death for his part in the Easter Rising, but the sentence was commuted to penal servitude for life, and he was released under an amnesty in 1917 because he was born in New York. In the same year he was elected to Westminster as MP for East Clare, and president of Sinn Fein. He was rearrested in May 1918, but escaped to the USA in 1919. He returned to Dublin in 1920 from where he directed the struggle against the British government. He authorized the negotiations of 1921, but refused to accept the ensuing treaty arguing that external association with Britain rather than the lesser status of dominion status was attainable. His opposition to the Anglo‐Irish Treaty contributed to the civil war that followed. De Valera was arrested by the Free State government in 1923, and spent a year in prison. In 1926 he formed a new party, Fianna Fáil, which secured a majority in 1932. De Valera became Taoiseach and foreign minister of the Free State, and at once instituted a programme of social and economic protectionism. He played the leading role in framing the 1937 constitution by which southern Ireland became a republic in all but name. In relations with Britain, his government immediately abolished the oath of allegiance and suspended payment of the annuities due under the Land Purchase Acts. Under an agreement concluded in 1938 between the two countries, Britain accepted £10 million in final settlement, and surrendered the right to enter or fortify southern Irish ports. Throughout World War II de Valera maintained a strict neutrality, rejecting an offer by Winston Churchill in 1940 to recognize the principle of a united Ireland in return for Eire's entry into the war. He lost power at the 1948 elections but was again prime minister 1951–54 and 1957–59, and thereafter president of the Republic 1959–66
Page206 and 1966–73. Éamon de Valera Irish nationalist politician 'No longer shall our children, like our cattle, be brought up for export.' [Speech in the Dáil, 19 December 1934.] Éamon de Valera Irish nationalist politician 'Whenever I wanted to know what the Irish people wanted I had only to examine my own heart.' [Speech in the Dáil 6 January 1922.]
Devlin, Anne (c. 1778–1851) Irish patriot, born in County Dublin. A niece of the revolutionary leader Michael Dwyer, she was the servant of the revolutionary leader Robert Emmet. When his rebellion failed in 1803, Devlin carried messages between him and his friends in Dublin. She was arrested by the government, imprisoned, and brutally tortured, but refused to give any information on Emmet. Released in 1805, she spent the remainder of her life in poverty. A monument to Devlin's life was erected over her grave in Glasnevin Cemetery by the historian R R Madden.
Devonshire, William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire (1808–1891) British aristocrat whose development of Eastbourne, Sussex, England, was an early example of town planning. 2nd Earl 1834, succeeded to dukedom 1858.
Devonshire, 8th Duke of British politician; see Spencer Compton Cavendish Hartington.
Devoy, John (1842–1928) Irish‐born US journalist and republican activist. In 1861, he joined the secret society of the Fenians to struggle for an independent Ireland. After serving five years in prison (1866–71), he was forcibly exiled to the USA, where he took citizenship and campaigned vigorously among his fellow Irish‐Americans for the nationalist cause. He was a leading figure in the formation of both 'Clan‐Na‐ Gael', an expatriate revolutionary organization, in 1867 and the Land League in 1879. Devoy was born in Kill, County Kildare and worked as a clerk in Dublin. He helped rescue the Fenian leader James
Page207 Stephens from prison in 1865, but the following year was himself jailed for revolutionary activity. In the USA, he joined the New York Herald before founding his own newspaper, the Gaelic American. Through this journal, Devoy adopted an increasingly anti‐British position, opposing constitutional settlements and advocating armed rebellion. He helped raise funds to buy German arms for the Irish Volunteers in 1914, and strongly backed the Easter Rising of 1916.
Dewar, Donald Campbell (1937–2000) British Labour politician, born in Scotland, secretary of state for Scotland from 1997 and first minister of the newly elected Scottish parliament from May 1999. He joined the Labour Party while at university and contested the Aberdeen South parliamentary seat at the age of 27, later winning it 1966–70. Following a period out of Parliament, he represented Glasgow Garscadden from 1978. He was opposition spokesperson on Scottish affairs 1981–92 and on social security 1992–95, and then opposition chief whip 1995–97. He successfully oversaw the passage of legislation in 1997 to create a devolved parliament for Scotland, and in 1998 was elected Labour leader for the Scottish parliament. Born in Glasgow, he was educated at Glasgow Academy and then Glasgow University, where he was president of the Union 1961–62. After leaving university he devoted himself to politics within the Labour Party. Donald Dewar First Minister of Scotland 'This is a moment anchored in our history. This is about who we are and how we carry ourselves.' [At the opening of the Scottish Parliament; BBC 1, 1 July 1999] Donald Dewar First minister of the newly elected Scottish Parliament, from 1999 'Today is a proud moment: a new stage of a journey begun long ago.' [In his speech opening the Scottish Parliament in 1999.]
D'Ewes, Simonds (1602–1650) English antiquary. He became a member of Parliament in 1640 and was expelled during Pride's purge in 1648. His parliamentary records are of great historical value. He was knighted in 1626.
Diamond Jubilee celebration in 1897 of the 60th year of Queen Victoria's rule. The jubilee was a celebration of both Crown and Empire at the peak of British colonial power. The scions of other royal houses, many
Page208 related to Victoria, joined the celebrations and paid their respects to Victoria's rule, heightening Britain's sense of superiority over the continental powers. Ironically, even while the jubilee was being celebrated there was renewed tension between the Crown and the Boers in South Africa, which was to lead to the Boer War, a significant blow to British imperial prestige and morale. In retrospect, the jubilee celebrations neatly encapsulated both the splendour and the superficiality of Britain's achievements in the 19th century.
Diane de Poitiers (1499–1566) Mistress of Henry II of France. She exercised almost unlimited power over the king, who made her Duchess of Valentinois. When he died she was expelled from court by his widow, Catherine de' Medici.
Diarmid (or Diarmait) three Irish kings: Diarmid I of the Uí Néill dynasty, King of Tara, killed in 565 in revenge for having killed a youth who had taken sanctuary with Columcille (St Columba); Diarmid II, King of Tara, who reigned 658–65; and Diarmid III, King of Leinster, who reigned 1042–72.
die‐hard in British politics, towards the end of 1918, a nickname given to Conservatives who wished to abandon the coalition government under David Lloyd George and return to the original party system.
Digby, Everard (1578–1606) English conspirator in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. He was supposed to start a revolt in the Midlands on hearing of the plot's success. After its failure he was captured and executed.
Digby, Kenelm (1603–1665) English diplomat and writer. As a Catholic he was distrusted by Parliament and spent most of the years 1642–60 abroad. He was Queen Henrietta Maria's chancellor in the 1640s and retained his position after the Restoration, even though he had entered into negotiations with Oliver Cromwell 1654–56.
Digger (or True Leveller) member of an English 17th‐century radical sect that attempted to seize and share out common land. The Diggers became prominent in April 1649 when, headed by Gerrard Winstanley, they set up communal colonies near Cobham, Surrey, and elsewhere. The Diggers wanted to return to what they claimed was a 'golden age' before the Norman Conquest, when they believed that all land was held in common and its fruits were shared fairly between the people, and when men and women were equal. They did not allow private property or possessions; it is sometimes claimed that they were the first communist society. The Diggers' colonies were attacked by mobs and, being pacifists, they made no resistance. The support they attracted alarmed the government and they were dispersed in 1650. Their ideas influenced the early Quakers (called the Society of Friends).
Page209 Gerrard Winstanley Leader of the Diggers 'None ought to be lords or landlords over another, but the earth is free for every son and daughter of mankind to live free upon.' [Letter to Lord Fairfax, 1649] Gerrard Winstanley Leader of the Diggers 'Why may we not have our Heaven here (that is, a comfortable livelihood in the Earth) and Heaven hereafter too ...?' [An Appeal to All Englishmen 1650] Gerrard Winstanley Leader of the Diggers 'You noble Diggers all, stand up now, / The waste land to maintain, seeing Cavaliers by name / Your digging do disdain and persons all defame.' [The Diggers' Song]
Dilke, Charles Wentworth (1843–1911) British Liberal politician, member of Parliament 1868–86 and 1892–1911. A Radical, he supported a minimum wage and legalization of trade unions. Succeeded to baronetcy 1869.
Dill, John Greer (1881–1944) British field marshal in World War II. A former commandant of the Staff College and Director of Operations, he commanded British I Corps in France 1939. He returned to the UK April 1940 to become Vice‐Chief of the Imperial General Staff, succeeding General Ironside as Chief of Staff May 1940. He was replaced by General Alanbrooke December 1941 and went to the USA as head of the British Military Mission. KCB 1937.
Dillon, James (1902–1986) Irish politician. Born in Dublin, the son of John Dillon, he studied business management in London and Chicago. He cofounded the National Centre Party in 1932, and was vice president of Fine Gael in 1933. He was the only member of the Dáil who was openly hostile to Irish neutrality in World War II. He served in the interparty governments of 1948–51 and 1954–57, and was a modernizing leader of Fine Gael 1959–65.
Dillon, John (1851–1927) Irish nationalist politician. He was a vigorous supporter of Charles Parnell until the O'Shea divorce affair, when he became the leader of the anti‐Parnellite
Page210 Irish National Federation. He supported John Redmond as leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party and succeeded him in 1918, but was overwhelmingly defeated by Sinn Fein in the elections that year.
Diplock court in Northern Ireland, a type of court established in 1972 by the British government under Lord Diplock (1907–1985) to try offences linked with guerrilla violence. The right to jury trial was suspended and the court consisted of a single judge, because potential jurors were allegedly being intimidated and were unwilling to serve. Despite widespread criticism, the Diplock courts continued to operate into the 1990s.
disestablishment the formal separation of a church from the State by ceasing to recognize it as the official church of a country or province. The special status of the Church of Ireland, created by Henry VIII in 1541, was a major source of grievance to Irish Catholics in the 19th century and it was disestablished by Gladstone in 1869, with its endowments converted to charitable ends. In 1920, after a bitter struggle lasting over 50 years, the Welsh Anglican Church was disestablished as the Church in Wales; it gained its own archbishop and was detached from the province of Canterbury. There have been several attempts to disestablish the Church of England which would involve the abolition of the Royal Supremacy over the Church and the concomitant right of the Prime Minister to advise the Crown on episcopal appointments.
Disinherited, the the supporters of Simon de Montfort whose land was seized by Henry III after the Battle of Evesham1265. The Dictum of Kenilworth the following year imposed harsh financial conditions for the recovery of the confiscated lands. The name is also applied to the English lords who held land in Scotland which was confiscated by Robert the Bruce after his success at Bannockburn 1314. In 1332, they landed in Fife under Edward Balliol, who was later crowned at Scone, and reigned as a client‐king of Edward III of England until 1334.
Disraeli, Benjamin (1804–1881) (1st Earl of Beaconsfield) British Conservative politician and novelist. Elected to Parliament in 1837, he was chancellor of the Exchequer under Lord Derby in 1852, 1858–59, and 1866–68, and prime minister in 1868 and 1874–80. His imperialist policies brought India directly under the crown, and he was personally responsible for purchasing control of the Suez Canal. The central Conservative Party organization is his creation. His popular, political novels reflect an interest in social reform and include Coningsby (1844) and Sybil (1845).
Page211 Disraeli
(Image © Billie Love)
Page212 British prime minister Benjamin Disraeli. In office during the 19th century, Disraeli secured for Britain a controlling interest in the Suez Canal. His charm made him a favourite of Queen Victoria, on whom he conferred the title of Empress of India in 1876. A skilful diplomat, he achieved a 'peace with honour' at the Congress of Berlin (1878), which contributed to the preservation of European stability, after the Russian conflict with the Turks in the Balkans. Disraeli
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Cartoon from Punch in 1872 depicting Disraeli (front) and Gladstone as two opposing lions making speeches in Lancashire.
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Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist ''Frank and explicit' – that is the right line to take when you wish to conceal your own mind and to confuse the minds of others.' [Sybil bk 6, ch. 1] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'A Conservative government is an organized hypocrisy.' [Speech 17 March 1845] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'A majority is always the best repartee.' [Tancred ch. 14] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'All those institutions and all those principles ... in due time will become great and 'burning' questions.' [Speech in Manchester 20 March 1873] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'Damn your principles! Stick to your party.' [Latham, Famous Sayings]
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Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative politician and novelist 'Every woman should marry – and no man.' [Lothair ch. 30] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'Experience is the child of Thought, and Thought is the child of Action. We cannot learn men from books.' [Vivian Grey bk 5, ch. 1] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'Finality is not the language of politics.' [Speech in House of Commons 28 February 1859] Benjamin Disraeli English politician 'He has not a single redeeming defect.' [On William Gladstone. Attributed] Benjamin Disraeli English politician 'He is a burglar of other's intellect ... there is no statesman who has committed political petty larceny on so great a scale.' [On Robert Peel. Speech in the House of Commons, 1847]
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Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'His Christianity was muscular.' [Endymion] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'Increased means and increased leisure are the two civilizers of man.' [Speech in Manchester 3 April 1872] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'Is man an ape or an angel? Now I am on the side of the angels.' [Speech in Oxford 25 November 1864] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'Justice is truth in action.' [Speech in House of Commons, 11 February 1851] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'Little things affect little minds.' [Sybil bk 3, ch. 2]
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Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'Read no history: nothing but biography, for that is life without theory.' [Contarini Fleming] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'The Continent will not suffer England to be the workshop of the world.' [Speech in House of Commons 15 March 1838] Benjamin Disraeli English politician 'The Duke's government – a dictatorship of patriotism.' [On the Duke of Wellington, in Endymion] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'The magic of first love is our ignorance that it can ever end.' [Henrietta Temple bk 4 ch. 1] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative politician and novelist 'The movement of the middle classes for the abolition of slavery was virtuous, but it was not wise. It was a very ignorant movement.' [Lord George Bentinck; A Political Biography 1851]
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Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'The right Hon. Gentleman caught the Whigs bathing, and walked away with their clothes.' [Of Sir Robert Peel, speech in House of Commons 28 February 1845] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'There is moderation even in excess.' [Vivian Grey bk 6, ch. 1] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'To do nothing and get something, formed a boy's ideal of a manly career.' [Sybil bk 1, ch. 5] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'When a man fell into his anecdotage it was a sign for him to retire from the world.' [Lothair ch. 28] Benjamin Disraeli British Conservative prime minister and novelist 'You know who the critics are? The men who have failed in literature and art.' [Lothair ch. 35]
Page218 dissenting academies in Britain, schools founded in late 17th and 18th centuries for children of religious nonconformists who were otherwise banned from local schools and universities. They became a model of advanced education, with their emphasis on the sciences and modern languages. See also charity schools.
Dissolution of the Monasteries closure of the monasteries of England and Wales from 1536 to 1540 and confiscation of their property by Henry VIII; see England: history 1485–1714, Henry VIII and the split with Rome. The operation was organized by Thomas Cromwell and affected about 800 monastic houses with the aim of boosting royal income. Most of the property was later sold off to the gentry.
distraint of knighthood in British history, compulsory knighthood introduced by Henry III for all those with lands of a particular value (originally £20). The knights had to pay scutage to the king in lieu of military service under the feudal system; in effect they became liable for an additional tax. It was used by the Tudors and James I, and during the Eleven Years' Tyranny Charles I levied fines on those who had failed to be knighted. It was declared illegal by the Long Parliament in 1641.
Dod, Lottie (Charlotte) (1871–1960) English sportswoman. Probably the UK's greatest all‐rounder, she was tennis's first child protégéé, winning her first Wimbledon title in 1887 at the age of 15 years 285 days, the youngest‐ever champion. After achieving four more singles titles, she represented England in hockey in 1899, and won the British Ladies Open Golf championships in 1904 at Troon. Her career was completed with a silver medal for archery at the 1908 Olympic Games in London. Dod's triumphs as a tennis player included defeating Wimbledon champion Ernest Renshaw in a handicapped exhibition match in 1885, and six‐times winner Willie Renshaw in the same year. Her birthplace was Cheshire.
Dodington, George (1691–1762) (1st Baron Melcombe) English politician. He was constantly changing sides, serving in succession Robert Walpole, the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Argyll, and the Prince again. He is remembered for his Diary, published in 1784, which reveals the intrigues of his time and his egotism. He was created Baron Melcombe in 1761.
Domesday Book record of the survey of England carried out in 1086 by officials of William the Conqueror in order to assess land tax and other dues, find out the value of the crown lands, and enable the king to estimate the power of his vassal barons. The name is derived from the belief that its judgement was as final as that of Doomsday. The commissioners' method was to hold formal sessions and to take sworn answers to a set list of questions, including a
Page219 formalized description of the agriculture of each place, how much land there was, who held it, what it was worth in the time of King Edward the Confessor and in 1086, and the status and numbers of people who lived there. Domesday Book reflects the great changes which the Norman Conquest brought about in England, particularly feudal land tenure following the introduction of the feudal system. Northumberland and Durham were omitted, and also London, Winchester, and certain other towns. The Domesday Book is preserved in two volumes at the Public Record Office, London. Domesday Book
(Image © Billie Love)
Part of the Domesday Book, the compilation of which was ordered by William the Conqueror in 1086. Compiled to provide a basis for taxation, the Domesday Book was the most comprehensive survey of feudal estates carried out in medieval England. It caused great popular discontent and earned its name because, like the religious Day of Judgement, there could be no appeal against it.
Page220 Domett, William (1754–1828) English admiral. He commanded the flagship Royal George on the 'Glorious First of June' in 1794, was present in the action off Lorient in 1795, and served as flag captain under Hyde Parker in the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801.
domus conversorum In England, house for converted Jews in Chancery Lane founded by Henry III 1232. Royal pensions and retraining were offered as incentives to conversion. After Jews were expelled from England en masse 1290, numbers dwindled and in 1377 the wardenship of the house was combined with the post of the Master of the Rolls, a senior judge and keeper of records. The house was demolished 1717 and the site was occupied by the Public Record Office.
Donald III, Bane ('fair') (c. 1039–c. 1100) King of Scotland. He came to the throne in 1093 after seizing it on the death of his brother Malcolm III. He was dethroned in 1094 by his nephew, Malcolm's son, Duncan II. He regained power in 1094 but was defeated and captured in 1097 by Edgar, fourth son of Malcolm III, who had him blinded and imprisoned until his death. As Donalbain, he appears in Shakespeare's play Macbeth 1605.
Donovan, Terence Daniel (1936–1996) English photographer. His trademark style juxtaposed the luxurious with the everyday, glamorous models appearing against harsh and bleak backgrounds. Glances, a collection of his work, was published in 1983. Donovan was born in the East End of London, and left school at the age of 11. He attended a course in blockmaking at the London School of Engraving and Lithography, but had established an interest in photography by the age of 15, and joined the studio of fashion photographer John French.
Doomsday Book variant spelling of Domesday Book, the English survey of 1086.
Dors, Diana (1931–1984) (born Diana Fluck) English actor. Promoted as a high‐profile sex symbol by the Rank Organization, she enjoyed great personal popularity although generally typecast in blowsy supporting roles. Accomplished stage work in Three Months Gone (1970) brought her good character parts in films like Deep End (1970) and The Amazing Mr Blunden (1972), but she subsequently turned to cabaret and television work as an agony aunt. Her final screen appearance was Steaming (1984). Dors was born in Swindon, Wiltshire, and studied at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA). Following her film debut in The Shop at Sly Corner (1946), she was signed to a long‐term contract with Rank who groomed her for stardom in their 'Charm School'. She appeared in various low‐budget comedies but, despite an effective dramatic performance in Yield to the Night (1956) and highly publicized visits to Hollywood, she never received substantial leading roles.
Page221 Douglas ((Celtic dubh glas'black water')) Scottish family that can be traced back to the 12th century. The dukes of Hamilton, Buccleuch, and Queensbury, and the earls of Morton, Home, and Wemyss, are members of the Douglas family. There are records on William of Douglas between 1175 and 1213. His grandson, William of Douglas, 'the Hardy' (died 1298), rose against King Edward I of England in 1297 and died in the Tower of London. James of Douglas (1286–1330), 'Good Sir James', also known as 'Black Douglas', was his son, and bore the title Lord of Douglas; he was a loyal supporter of Robert (I) the Bruce, sharing the command at the Battle of Bannockburn. He died carrying the heart of Bruce to the Holy Land.
Douglas‐Home, Alec (1903–1995) (Baron Home of the Hirsel; born Alexander Frederick Douglas‐Home) British Conservative politician. He was foreign secretary 1960–63, and succeeded Harold Macmillan as prime minister in 1963. He renounced his peerage (as 14th Earl of Home) and re‐entered the Commons after successfully contesting a by‐election, but failed to win the 1964 general election, and resigned as party leader in 1965. He was again foreign secretary 1970–74, when he received a life peerage. The playwright William Douglas‐Home was his brother. He was knighted in 1962. Alec Douglas‐Home British prime minister 'There are two problems in my life. The political ones are insoluble and the economic ones are incomprehensible.' [Speech January 1964]
Dover, Thomas (1664–1742) British physician and sea captain. Dover is chiefly remembered for rescuing Alexander Selkirk, the model for Daniel Defoe's castaway Robinson Crusoe, from five years' solitude on Juan Fernandez island in the South Pacific in 1709. Dover was also the originator of 'Dover's powder', a preparation of opium and ipecacuanha used to relieve pain and induce sweating.
Dover Patrol sub‐unit of the British Navy based at Dover and Dunkirk throughout World War I. Its primary task was to close the English Channel to German vessels while escorting Allied ships safely through the area.
Downing, George (c. 1623–1684) English soldier and politician. He was one of Oliver Cromwell's principal advisers on foreign policy during the Protectorate, and worked for Charles II after the Restoration, arresting various regicides in Europe. He was made a baronet in 1663.
Drake, Francis (c. 1540–1596) English buccaneer and explorer. After enriching himself as a pirate against Spanish interests in the Caribbean between 1567 and 1572, as well as in the slave trade, he was sponsored by Elizabeth I for an expedition to the Pacific, sailing round the world from 1577 to 1580 in the Golden Hind, robbing Spanish ships as he went. This was the second circumnavigation of the globe (the first
Page222 was by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan). Drake also helped to defeat the Spanish Armada in 1588 as a vice admiral in the Revenge. Francis Drake English buccaneer and explorer 'I have singed the Spanish king's beard.' [Attributed remark after the raid on Cadiz 1587] Francis Drake English buccaneer and explorer 'The advantage of time and place in all practical actions is half the victory; which being lost is irrecoverable.' [Letter to Queen Elizabeth I, 1588] Francis Drake English buccaneer and explorer 'There is plenty of time to win this game [of bowls], and to thrash the Spaniards too.' [Attributed remark] Francis Drake English buccaneer and explorer 'There must be a beginning of any great matter, but the continuing ... until it be thoroughly finished yields the true glory.' [Despatch to Sir Francis Walsingham 17 May 1587]
Dreadnought class of battleships built for the British navy after 1905 and far superior in speed and armaments to anything then afloat. The first modern battleship to be built, it was the basis of battleship design for more than 50 years. The first Dreadnought was launched in 1906, with armaments consisting entirely of big guns. The German Nassau class was begun in 1907, and by 1914, the USA, France, Japan, and Austria‐Hungary all had battleships of a
Page223 similar class to the Dreadnought. German plans to build similar craft led to the naval race that contributed to Anglo‐German antagonism and the origins of World War I.
Drew, Jane Beverley (1911–1996) English architect. In partnership with her husband Maxwell Fry, she worked on numerous projects in Africa 1943–65, and was a senior architect 1951–54 at Chandigarh, India, often supervising work for Le Corbusier. She advocated the need for an Open University (Milton Keynes), working on the project 1969–77. She was made DBE in 1996. Her buildings include the Government College for Women and the high school at Chandigarh; the Wesley Girls School, Ghana (1946); the Olympic stadium and swimming pool (1965) in Kaduna, Nigeria; and the hospital building for the Kuwait Oil Company (1949–51) and the Festival of Britain Harbour Restaurant, London (1951).
Drogheda, Battle of siege of the southern garrison town of Drogheda, County Louth, by Oliver Cromwell's Parliamentary forces in September 1649, during Cromwell's Irish campaign (1649–50). When the town was taken, 4,000 Irish were massacred, including civilians, soldiers, and Catholic priests. The merciless killing contributed to Catholic Irish hatred of English rule in Ireland. The Irish had supported Charles I's Royalists in the English Civil War (1641–49) as part of their Great Rebellion against the English government in the 1640s. Cromwell's army was taking revenge for this collusion and the Portadown Bridge massacre of Protestant planters (settlers) in 1641.
drove roads in Britain, trackways for cattle, maintained by constant usage. They were probably established in prehistoric times, when communities moved their livestock from one grazing area to another. They were in continual use until the first half of the 19th century, when enclosures and the advent of the railway made long‐distance drove roads obsolete. Many former drove roads are now marked on Ordnance Survey maps as 'British trackways'.
duckboard platform of wooden slats built over muddy ground to form a dry path. During World War I, army engineers used duckboards to line the bottom of trenches on the Western Front, as these were regularly flooded. Mud and water would lie in the trenches for months on end. Although duckboards kept the soldiers dry most of the time, and helped to prevent the development of trench foot caused by prolonged standing in waterlogged conditions, they were ineffective when water levels rose during bad weather or flooding. Duckboards also encouraged rats, as they, too, were able to keep themselves off the bottom of a flooded trench.
Dudley, Lord Guildford (died 1554) English nobleman, fourth son of the Duke of Northumberland. He was married by his father to Lady Jane Grey in 1553, against her wishes, in an attempt to prevent the succession of Mary I to the throne. The plot failed, and he and his wife were executed.
Dumnonii British tribe inhabiting a territory in modern Cornwall and part of Devon, with a capital at Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter). They were overrun in the early years of the Roman invasion of <span
Page224 class="small">AD 43 and were recognized as a tribal corporation or civitas c. because they lived in valleys or worked mines.
AD
80. Their name is Celtic and means 'deep ones', either
Dunbar scene of Oliver Cromwell's defeat of the Scots in 1650, now a port and resort in Lothian, Scotland. Torness nuclear power station is nearby.
Dunbar, Earl of Scottish title dating from the 11th century. The 12th Earl was deprived of his title and estates by James I of Scotland in 1434, but the title was revived in 1605 in favour of George, third son of Alexander Home of Manderston. On his death the title became extinct 1611.
Dunbar, Battles of two English victories over the Scots at Dunbar, now a port and resort in Lothian.
Duncan I King of Scotland. He succeeded his grandfather, Malcolm II, as king in 1034, but was defeated and killed by Macbeth. He is the Duncan in Shakespeare's play Macbeth (1605).
Duncan II King of Scotland, son of Malcolm III and grandson of Duncan I. He gained English and Norman help to drive out his uncle Donald III in 1094. He ruled for a few months before being killed by agents of Donald, who then regained power.
Duncan‐Sandys, Duncan (Edwin) British politician; see Sandys, Duncan Edwin.
Dundas, David (1735–1820) Scottish general and writer on military tactics. His Rules and Regulations for the Formation, Field Exercises and Movements of His Majesty's Forces 1792 were published as the official orders for the army. He also wrote Rules and Regulations for the Cavalry 1792. John Moore and the Duke of Wellington fought their battles according the rules laid down in these works.
Dundas, Henry (1742–1811) (1st Viscount Melville) Scottish Conservative politician. In 1791 he became home secretary and, with revolution raging in France, carried through the prosecution of the English and Scottish radicals. After holding other high cabinet posts, he was impeached in 1806 for corruption and, although acquitted on the main charge, held no further office.
Dundee, John Graham Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee see John Graham Claverhouse.
Page225 Dunfermline, Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline (c. 1555–1622) Scottish statesman and chancellor of Scotland. He helped to arrange the details of the union between Scotland and England in 1603. He was created Earl of Dunfermline in 1606.
Dunmore, John Murray, Earl of (1732–1809) Scottish‐born royal governor. As governor of Virginia (1771–76), he offended patriot sympathies by twice dissolving the House of Burgesses. He led a campaign against the Shawnees and he tried unsuccessfully to oppose the patriot movement in Virginia. His campaign against the Shawnees was called Lord Dunmore's War.
Dunton, John (1650–1733) English bookseller and political pamphleteer. His publications supported the Whig Party.
Durham, John George Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham (1792–1840) British politician. Appointed Lord Privy Seal in 1830, he drew up the first Reform Bill in 1832, and as governor general of Canada briefly in 1837 he drafted the Durham Report which resulted in the union of Upper and Lower Canada. He was made a baron in 1828 and an earl in 1833. John George Lambton Durham British politician 'The English race ... predominate (in Lower Canada) ... by their superior knowledge, energy, enterprise and wealth.' [Durham Report (1839)]
Durham Cathedral cathedral in the city of Durham, County Durham, northeastern England. A fine example of Norman architecture, it was begun in 1093 by Bishop William of St Carileph and remains largely as he conceived it. It was one of the earliest vaulted cathedrals in Europe and the first to employ rib vaults. These, combined with massive cylindrical piers, strikingly ornamented, create one of the most impressive of all English cathedrals. features The interior is as originally built except for the choir. This was complete by 1104, but in 1225 its highly experimental vault was already weak. The nave, built from 1104 to 1128 and vaulted by 1135, contains some of the earliest pointed arches used in vaulting. It was extended westwards around 1170–75 by a late‐Norman Lady Chapel. From 1242 to 1280 the Norman east end was replaced with the unusual Chapel of Nine Altars, and the chancel, except for its aisles, was revaulted at the same time. The culmination of building at Durham also produced the visual climax, the tall Perpendicular crossing tower, built from 1465 to 1490. The rose window at the east end is a replacement of an earlier one, and is by James Wyatt (1795).
Durrow, Book of late 7th‐ or early 8th‐century illuminated gospel book, associated with the
Page226 church at Durrow, County Offaly, Ireland. An early example of the illuminated insular (this refers to the script style) gospel books, the Book of Durrow contains a copy of Jerome's Vulgate text of the four Gospels. Symbols and techniques found in the artistry of the illuminated pages suggest a Northumbrian origin, and indicate that the book may have had some influence on Ireland's more famous insular Gospel, the Book of Kells. The Book of Durrow is closely associated with St Columba and after its compilation it may have been held on Scotland's island of Iona, St Columba's most famous monastic foundation. The book was in the possession of the church at Durrow by the early 12th century, when information about the church and monastery was added to its preface. Since its donation in the late 17th century by the bishop of Meath, the Book of Durrow has been kept in Trinity College library, Dublin.
Duval, Claude (1643–1670) English criminal. He was born in Normandy and turned highwayman after coming to England at the Restoration.
Dyfrig, St (c.450–546) (or St Dubricius or St Devereux) Celtic religious leader and traditional founder of monasticism in Wales. His remains are buried in Llandaff Cathedral.
Dymoke English family of hereditary champions of the monarchy. Their representative formerly had to appear at coronation banquets and challenge all comers to dispute the sovereign's title. The challenge was last made at the coronation of George IV in 1830. Since then, the Dymokes have carried the standard of England at coronation ceremonies.
Dympna (lived 7th century AD) Irish princess and martyr, the patron of the mentally ill. She is reputed to have been murdered by her pagan father in Gheel, Belgium, for rebuffing his incestuous advances. Her feast day is 15 May.
E Eadmer of Canterbury (c.1064–1124) (or Edmer) English historian and monk. His works include a history of England 1060–1122, Historia Novorum in Anglia, and a biography of his friend and Archbishop of Canterbury, St Anselm.
ealdorman Anglo‐Saxon official; the office was gradually replaced by the hereditary title of earl but was in part revived in the 19th century in the municipal office of alderman. Originally a nobleman placed by the king in charge of a shire, much of their administrative role was gradually taken over by sheriffs. In the 10th and 11th century, they increasingly became governors and military leaders of a wider area, and by the time of King Canute the term earl was preferred. This term survived the Norman Conquest, and the position became a hereditary title rather than an office.
Eardley, Joan (1921–1963) English painter. She was greatly influenced by the
Page227 post‐Impressionist painter van Gogh, both technically and in terms of her choice of subjects. Her finest work was produced in Scotland, where she painted the impoverished children of Glaswegian tenements, and landscapes and seascapes inspired by the northeast coast around the tiny fishing village of Catterline. Eardley was born in Warnham, Sussex. She began her studies at Goldsmith's College of Art, London in 1938 but moved to study at the Glasgow School of Art in 1940. After World War II she studied at Hospitalfield, Arbroath, and at Glasgow School of Art, winning various prizes and travelling to France and Italy on a Carnegie bursary. In 1949 she took a studio in Cochrane Street, Glasgow, and in 1950 she first visited Catterline where she lived and worked until her death.
Eastern Association association formed by the English counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridgeshire, Hertfordshire, Huntingdonshire, and Lincolnshire in 1642 and 1643 for their common defence in the Parliamentary cause during the Civil War. Their forces were organized by Oliver Cromwell. When the New Model Army was formed in 1645, its highly effective cavalry was drawn mainly from the Eastern Association.
Easter Rising (or Easter Rebellion) in Irish history, a republican insurrection against the British government that began on Easter Monday, April 1916, in Dublin. The rising was organized by the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), led by Patrick Pearse, along with sections of the Irish Volunteers and James Connolly's socialist Irish Citizen Army. Although a military failure, it played a central role in shifting nationalist opinion from allegiance to the constitutional Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) to separatist republicanism. Arms from Germany intended for the IRB were intercepted, but the rising proceeded regardless with the seizure of the Post Office and other buildings in Dublin by 1,500 volunteers. The rebellion was crushed by the British Army within five days, both sides suffering major losses: 250 civilians, 64 rebels, and 132 members of the crown forces were killed and around 2,600 injured. Pearse, Connolly, and about a dozen rebel leaders were subsequently executed in Kilmainham Jail. Others, including the future Taoiseach (prime minister) Éamon de Valera, were spared due to US public opinion, and were given amnesty in June 1917. Patrick Henry Pearse Irish poet 'In the name of God, and of the dead generations from which she receives her old traditions of nationhood, Ireland through us summons her children to her flag and strikes for freedom.' [Proclamation at the General Post Office, Dublin, 1916]
East India Company, British commercial company (1600–1858) that had a monopoly on trade between England and the Far East; see British East India Company.
Page228 Eastland Company company founded 1579 to challenge the Hanseatic League's control of trade with the Baltic. An amalgamation of several smaller English associations, it imported grain and naval supplies, especially timber for masts, in return for woollen products, and succeeding in breaking the Hanseatic League's dominance of the trade. See also Muscovy Company.
Ede, James Chuter (1882–1965) (Baron Chuter‐Ede) British Labour politician. He was home secretary in the Labour government 1945–51 and introduced the Criminal Justice Act of 1948. In 1951 he became leader of the House of Commons until Labour's defeat in the October 1951 general election. He entered Parliament as Labour member for Mitcham in 1923 and represented South Sheilds 1929–31 and 1935–64. He served on Surrey county council for many years and was deputy lieutenant for Surrey in 1931. He was parliamentary secretary to the Board of Education 1940– 44 and his knowledge of local government was of great assistance to R A Butler in drafting the 1944 Education Act.
Eden, (Robert) Anthony (1897–1977) (1st Earl of Avon) British Conservative politician, foreign secretary 1935–38, 1940–45, and 1951–55; prime minister 1955–57, when he resigned after the failure of the Anglo‐French military intervention in the Suez Crisis. Upset by his prime minister's rejection of a peace plan secretly proposed by US president Franklin D Roosevelt in January 1938, Eden resigned as foreign secretary in February 1938 in protest against Chamberlain's decision to open conversations with the fascist dictator Mussolini. He was foreign secretary again in the wartime coalition, formed in December 1940, and in the Conservative government, elected in 1951. With the Soviets, he negotiated an interim peace in Vietnam in 1954. In April 1955 he succeeded Churchill as prime minister. When Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, precipitating the Suez Crisis, he authorized the use of force, and a joint Anglo‐ French force was sent to Egypt. The force was compelled to withdraw after pressure from the USA and the USSR, and this and ill‐health led to Eden's resignation in January 1957. He continued to maintain that his action had been justified. Aneurin Bevan British Labour politician 'He is more pathetic than sinister. Beneath the sophistication of his appearance and manner he has all the unplumbable stupidities and unawareness of his class and type.' [Of Anthony Eden, Tribune, 1943] Anthony Eden British Conservative politician 'We are not at war with Egypt. We are in armed conflict.' [Referring to the Suez Crisis. Speech November 1956]
Page229
Edgar (c. 1050–c. 1130) (called 'the Aetheling' ('of royal blood')) English prince, born in Hungary. Grandson of Edmund (II) Ironside, king of England in 1016, he was supplanted as heir to Edward the Confessor by William the Conqueror. He led two rebellions against William, in 1068 and 1069, but made peace in 1074.
Edgar the Peaceful (944–975) King of all England from 959. He was the younger son of Edmund I, and strove successfully to unite English and Danes as fellow subjects.
Edgehill, Battle of first battle of the English Civil War. It took place in 1642, on a ridge in south Warwickshire, between Royalists under Charles I and Parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex. Both sides claimed victory. Jacob Astley English Royalist general 'O Lord! thou knowest how busy I must be this day: / if I forget thee, do not thou forget me.' [Prayer before the Battle of Edgehill, quoted in Sir Philip Warwick Memoires]
Edington, Battle of battle May 878 at which Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, defeated the Danish forces of Guthrum. The site is at Edington, 6km/4 mi east of Westbury, Wiltshire; the chalk white horse on the downs nearby is said to commemorate the victory, The battle was a decisive one for Alfred, and forced the Danes to retire from Wessex into East Anglia.
Edmund I (921–946) King of England from 939. The son of Edward the Elder, he succeeded his half‐brother, Athelstan, as king in 939. He succeeded in regaining control of Mercia, which on his accession had fallen to the Norse inhabitants of Northumbria, and of the Five Boroughs, an independent confederation within the Danelaw. He then moved on to subdue the Norsemen in Cumbria and finally extended his rule as far as southern Scotland. As well as uniting England, he bolstered his authority by allowing St Dunstan to reform the Benedictine order. He was killed in 946 at Pucklechurch, Gloucestershire, by an outlawed robber.
Edmund (II) Ironside (c. 981–1016) King of England in 1016, the son of Ethelred II 'the Unready' (c. 968–1016). He led the resistance to Canute's invasion in 1015, and on Ethelred's death in 1016 was chosen king by the citizens of London. Meanwhile, the Witan (the king's council) elected Canute. In the struggle for the throne, Canute defeated Edmund at Ashingdon (or Assandun, and they divided the kingdom between them. When Edmund died the same year, Canute ruled the whole kingdom.
Page230 Edmund of Abingdon, St (1180–1240) English ecclesiastical scholar, archbishop of Canterbury 1233–40. Edmund became involved in a dispute with King Henry III, and was driven into exile, where he died. He was canonized in 1247. Edmund was born at Abingdon, near Oxford; he studied and taught at Oxford University, and later in Paris. The Oxford college of St Edmund Hall stands on the site of his former house.
Edmund, St (c. 840–870) King of East Anglia from 855. In 870 he was defeated and captured by the Danes at Hoxne, Suffolk, and martyred on refusing to renounce Christianity. He was canonized and his shrine at Bury St Edmunds became a place of pilgrimage.
Edred (died 955) Anglo‐Saxon King of the English from 946, the youngest son of Edward the Elder. His reign was largely spent battling for Northumbria, which had sworn allegiance to him in 947 but had transferred its loyalty to Eric Bloodaxe of Norway. Eric was killed in battle in 954, and Edred finally acquired Northumbria.
Edric the Forester (lived mid‐11th century) (also known as Edric the Wild) English chieftain on the Welsh border who revolted against William the Conqueror 1067, around what is today Herefordshire, burning Shrewsbury. He was subsequently reconciled with William, and fought with him against the Scots 1072. Later writings describe him as a legendary figure.
education acts in Britain, series of measures from the late 19th century onwards which provided for state education for all. The 1870 Education Act was the effective start of state‐financed education in England and Wales. Existing grants to charity schools were substantially increased and provision was made for local authorities to finance additional schools out of the rates. A series of subsequent acts made elementary education free and compulsory by 1891. H A L Fisher's 1918 Education Act attempted to raise the school leaving age to 14, and some provision was intended for further training. Rab Butler's pioneering act of 1944 organized a Ministry of Education and intended that schooling be compulsory to the age of 16, though this took many years to achieve. The 1980s and 1990s saw a variety of education acts which restricted the ability of local authorities to determine the pattern of education by enforcing a National Curriculum and regular testing in all state schools.
Edward (1330–1376) (called 'the Black Prince') Prince of Wales, eldest son of Edward III of England. The epithet (probably posthumous) may refer to his black armour. During the Hundred Years' War he fought at the Battle of Crécy in 1346 and captured the French king at Poitiers in 1356. He ruled Aquitaine from 1360 to 1371. In 1367 he invaded Castile and restored to the throne the deposed king, Pedro the Cruel (1334–69). During the revolt that eventually ousted him, he caused the massacre of Limoges in 1370. Edward the Black Prince Prince of Wales
Page231 'He who is steadfast unto death shall be saved and they who suffer in a just cause, theirs is the kingdom of heaven.' [Addressing his soldiers before the Battle of Poitiers 1356, quoted in Jean Froissart Chronicles]
Edward eight kings of England or Great Britain:
Edward I (1239–1307) King of England from 1272, son of Henry III (1207–1272). He led the royal forces against Simon de Montfort (the Younger) in the Barons' War of 1264–67, and was on a crusade when he succeeded to the throne. He established English rule over all of Wales in 1282–84, and secured recognition of his overlordship from the Scottish king, although the Scots under Sir William Wallace and Robert (I) the Bruce fiercely resisted actual conquest. His reign saw Parliament move towards its modern form with the Model Parliament of 1295. He married Eleanor of Castile (1245–1290) in 1254 and in 1299 married Margaret, daughter of Philip III of France. He was succeeded by his son Edward II (1284–1327). Edward built a number of castles, including the northern Welsh Conway castle, Caernarvon castle, Beaumaris castle, and Harlech castle. He was also responsible for building bastides (small fortified towns) to defend the English position in France.
Edward II (1284–1327) King of England from 1307, son of Edward I. Born at Caernarfon Castle, he was created the first Prince of Wales in 1301. Edward was incompetent, with a weak personality, and was over‐influenced by his unpopular friend Piers Gaveston. He struggled throughout his reign with discontented barons, who attempted to restrict his power through the Ordinances of 1311. His invasion of Scotland in 1314 to suppress revolt resulted in defeat at Bannockburn. When he fell under the influence of a new favourite, Hugh le Depenser, he was deposed in 1327 by his wife Isabella (1292–1358), daughter of Philip IV of France, and her lover Roger de Mortimer, and murdered in Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire. He was succeeded by his son, Edward III.
Edward III (1312–1377) King of England from 1327, son of Edward II. He assumed the government in 1330 from his mother, through whom in 1337 he laid claim to the French throne and thus began the Hundred Years' War. Edward was the victor of Halidon Hill in 1333, Sluys in 1340, Crécy in 1346, and at the siege of Calais 1346–47, and created the Order of the Garter. He was succeeded by his grandson Richard II. Edward's early experience was against the Scots, including the disastrous Weardale campaign in 1327. Forcing them to battle outside Berwick at Halidon Hill, he used a combination of dismounted men‐at‐arms and archers to crush the Scots. Apart from the naval victory of Sluys his initial campaigns against France were expensive and inconclusive. Resorting to chevauchée (raids through enemy territory), he scored a stunning victory at the Battle of Crécy, which delivered the crucial bridgehead of Calais into English hands. Due to the military success of his son Edward of Woodstock (Edward the Black Prince) at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 and in later campaigns, Edward achieved the favourable Treaty of Brétigny in 1360. He gave up personal command in the latter part of his reign. An inspiring leader, his Order of the Garter was a chivalric club designed to bind his military nobility to him.
Page232 The Order and its codes of chivalry were widely imitated.
Edward IV (1442–1483) King of England 1461–70 and from 1471. He was the son of Richard, Duke of York, and succeeded Henry VI in the Wars of the Roses, temporarily losing his throne to Henry when Edward fell out with his adviser Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick. Edward was a fine warrior and intelligent strategist, with victories at Mortimer's Cross and Towton in 1461, Empingham in 1470, and Barnet and Tewkesbury in 1471. He was succeeded by his son Edward V.
Edward V (1470–1483) King of England in 1483. Son of Edward IV, he was deposed three months after his accession in favour of his uncle (Richard III), and is traditionally believed to have been murdered (with his brother) in the Tower of London on Richard's orders. Edward V
(Image © Billie Love)
Page233 King Edward V of Great Britain and Ireland, and his brother Richard, Duke of York. Edward was deposed just three months after he took the throne, by his uncle, who became Richard III, and the two young princes were imprisoned in the Tower of London. It is traditionally believed that Richard III had his nephews murdered, although there is little evidence to show what really happened to them.
Edward VI (1537–1553) King of England from 1547, only son of Henry VIII and his third wife, Jane Seymour. The government was entrusted to his uncle, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (who fell from power in 1549), and then to the Earl of Warwick, John Dudley, later created Duke of Northumberland. He was succeeded by his half‐sister Mary I. Edward became a staunch Protestant, and during his reign the Reformation progressed in England under Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Edward died of tuberculosis, and his will, probably prepared by Northumberland, set aside that of his father so as to exclude his half‐ sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, from the succession. He nominated Lady Jane Grey, a granddaughter of Henry VII, who had recently married Northumberland's son. Technically Jane reigned for nine days, and was deposed by Mary I.
Page234 Edward VI
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page235 King Edward VI's coronation medal. The boy–king was a brilliant scholar, deeply interested in theological speculation, and during his short reign the Protestant Reformation in England advanced significantly. Edward VI King of England from 1547 'Methinks I am in prison. Here be no galleries nor gardens to walk in.' [Of Windsor. He was then 12 years old and his uncle, the Duke of Somerset, had just fallen from power.]
Edward VII (1841–1910) King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1901. As Prince of Wales he was a prominent social figure, but his mother Queen Victoria considered him too frivolous to take part in political life. In 1860 he made the first tour of Canada and the USA ever undertaken by a British prince. Edward VII King of Great Britain and Ireland 'You can tell when you have crossed the frontier into Germany because of the badness of the coffee.' [Lord Haldane Autobiography]
Edward VIII (1894–1972) King of Great Britain and Northern Ireland January–December 1936, when he renounced the throne to marry Wallis Warfield Simpson (see abdication crisis). He was created Duke of Windsor and was governor of the Bahamas 1940–45. Edward VIII Duke of Windsor 'I have found it impossible to discharge my duties as King as I would wish to do without the help and support of the woman I love.' [Abdication speech, broadcast on radio 11 December 1936]
Page236 Edward VIII Duke of Windsor 'The thing that impresses me most about America is the way parents obey their children.' [Look 5 March 1957]
Edwards, Jimmy (1920–1988) (born James Keith O'Neill Edwards) English comedian. Distinguished by his huge handlebar moustache and a bluff and blustering characterization, he first drew popular acclaim as Pa Glum in the hit radio series Take It From Here (1948–60). He starred in the television series Whack‐O! (1956–60, 1971) and John Jorrocks Esq, and made film appearances in Bottoms Up! (1959), The Plank (1967), The Bed Sitting Room (1969), and Rhubarb (1970). Edwards was born in London, and performed with Cambridge Footlights before serving in the RAF during World War II. His Dakota was shot down at Arnhem (1944) and his trademark moustache concealed subsequent surgery.
Edwards, Robert Walter Dudley (1910–1988) Irish scholar, one of the founders of modern Irish historiography. Edwards was professor of modern Irish history at University College, Dublin 1945–79. His most important work was Church and State in Tudor Ireland 1936. Edwards was born in Dublin, to an English father and Irish mother, and studied at University College in his native city. He moved to the Institute of Historical Research, University of London, and in 1938 co‐founded the authoritative journal Irish Historical Studies.
Edward the Confessor (c. 1003–1066) King of England from 1042, the son of Ethelred II. He lived in Normandy until shortly before his accession. During his reign power was held by Earl Godwin and his son Harold, while the king devoted himself to religion, including the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey (consecrated in 1065), where he is buried. His childlessness left four claimants to the English throne on his death and led ultimately to the Norman Conquest in 1066. He was canonized in 1161.
Edward the Elder (c. 870–924) King of the West Saxons. He succeeded his father Alfred the Great in 899. He reconquered southeast England and the Midlands from the Danes, uniting Wessex and Mercia with the help of his sister Aethelflaed. By the time of his death his kingdom was the most powerful in the British Isles. He was succeeded by his son Athelstan. Edward extended the system of burghal defence begun by Alfred, building new burghs, for example at Hertford and Buckingham, and twin burghs at Bedford and Stamford.
Edward the Martyr (c. 963–978) King of England from 975. Son of King Edgar, he was murdered at Corfe Castle, Dorset, probably at his stepmother Aelfthryth's instigation (she wished to secure the crown for
Page237 her son, Ethelred). He was canonized in 1001.
Edwin (c. 585–633) King of Northumbria from 617. He captured and fortified Edinburgh, which was named after him, and was killed in battle with Penda of Mercia in 632.
Edwy King of England, son of Edmund I. He succeeded his uncle Edred as king in 955 and drove Edred's chief adviser St Dunstan, then virtually ruler, into exile the same year. On the revolt in 957 of the Mercians and Northumbrians, who had chosen his brother Edgar as king, he was left to rule Wessex and Kent from 957 to 959.
Egbert (died 839) King of the West Saxons from 802, the son of Ealhmund, an under‐king of Kent. By 829 he had united England for the first time under one king.
Eldon, John Scott, 1st Earl of Eldon (1751–1838) English politician, born in Newcastle. He became a member of Parliament 1782, solicitor‐general 1788, attorney‐general 1793, and Lord Chancellor 1801–05 and 1807–27. During his term the rules of the Lord Chancellor's court governing the use of the injunction and precedent in equity finally became fixed. Knighted 1788, Baron 1799, Earl 1821. John Scott Eldon English politician 'If I were to begin life again, d–n my eyes, but I would begin as an agitator.' [Quoted in Walter Bagehot Biographical Studies: Lord Brougham]
Eleanor of Provence (c.1221–1291) Queen of England 1236–72, wife of Henry III. After his death, she became a nun in 1276 and died in obscurity.
Eleven Years' Tyranny pejorative contemporary term for the eleven years 1629–40 in which King Charles I ruled England without calling a parliament; now more usually termed the 'personal rule' to avoid the implication that he was acting illegally. There was little overt opposition to his imposition of direct rule in England, and only his efforts to impose the English Book of Common Prayer on Scotland, and the resulting Bishops' Wars, forced him to call Parliament in April 1640.
Eliot, John (1592–1632) English politician, born in Cornwall. He became a member of Parliament 1614, and with the Earl of Buckingham's patronage was made a vice‐admiral 1619. In 1626 he was imprisoned in the Tower of London for demanding Buckingham's impeachment. In 1628 he was a formidable supporter of the
Page238 petition of right opposing Charles I, and with other parliamentary leaders was again imprisoned in the Tower of London 1629, where he died. Knighted 1618.
Elizabeth two queens of England or the UK:
Elizabeth I (1533–1603) (called 'the Virgin Queen') Queen of England from 1558; the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Through her Religious Settlement of 1559 she enforced the Protestant religion by law. She had Mary Queen of Scots executed in 1587. Her conflict with Roman Catholic Spain led to the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. The Elizabethan age was expansionist in commerce and geographical exploration, and arts and literature flourished. The rulers of many European states made unsuccessful bids to marry Elizabeth, and she manipulated her suitors to strengthen England's position in Europe. She was succeeded by James I. Elizabeth I Queen of England 'My favour is not so lockt up for you, that others shall not partake thereof ... I will have here but one Mistress, and no Master.' [To Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, quoted in Sir Robert Naunton Fragmenta Regalia (1641)] Elizabeth I Queen of England 'This judgement I have of you, that you will not be corrupted with any manner of gift and that you will ... give me that counsel that you think best.' [To Lord Burghley 1558] Elizabeth I Queen of England 'Anger makes dull men witty, but it keeps them poor.' [Atributed remark] Elizabeth I Queen of England
Page239 'God may forgive you, but I never can.' [To the Countess of Nottingham, quoted in Hume History of England under the House of Tudor vol. 2, ch. 7] Elizabeth I Queen of England 'I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too.' [Speech to the troops at Tilbury on the approach of the Armada 1588] Elizabeth I Queen of England 'Madam I may not call you; mistress I am ashamed to call you; and so I know not what to call you; but howsoever, I thank you.' [Quoted in Harington Brief View of the State of the Church] Elizabeth I Queen of England 'Though God hath raised me high, yet this I count the glory of my crown: that I have reigned with your loves.' [The Golden Speech 1601, quoted in D'Ewes' Journal]
Elizabethan religious settlement re‐establishment of the Protestant church in England by Queen Elizabeth I during the Reformation. Papal authority was renounced in the Act of Supremacy (1559), and the Prayer Book of 1552, introduced under Edward VI, was restored in the Act of Uniformity (1559). The Thirty‐Nine Articles (1571) confirmed Protestant doctrine, particularly the use of the English bible and justification by faith. However, at the same time, the settlement made certain concessions to Roman Catholics in England. Elizabeth declared herself only supreme governor of the English church rather than supreme head as her father Henry VIII had done. She kept bishops, music, and vestments, and allowed the celebration of saints' days. Article 22 of the Thirty‐Nine Articles declared that 'Romish Doctrine...is a fond thing vainly invented' and Article 28 declared that 'Transubstantiation ... is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture'. However, the Protestant doctrine of the real presence was a move towards the doctrine of transubstantiation (the transformation of bread and water into the body and
Page240 blood of Jesus during the Eucharist). For this reason, the Elizabethan settlement is often portrayed as a 'middle way' in religion. Nevertheless, the guiding principle was the Act of Uniformity (1559), not a declaration of religious toleration – in the 16th century rulers did not allow their subjects the right to worship according to their conscience.
Elizabeth of York (1465–1503) Wife of Henry VII and queen of England. She was the daughter of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville, and was born in Westminster. Her 1486 marriage to Henry united the Yorkist and Lancastrian lines. She was the mother of Henry VIII and of Margaret, who married James IV of Scotland.
Ella (died 588) First king of Deira (559–88) in modern‐day Yorkshire, England.
Elphinstone, Mountstuart (1779–1859) British historian and statesman. He entered the civil service of the East India Company in 1796 and became one of the founders of Britain's Indian empire. Elphinstone was aide‐de‐camp to Marquess Wellesley in 1803, and was envoy to Kabul, Afghanistan, in 1808. He helped to win the battle of Kirki against the Mahrattas in 1817, and was made governor of Bombay (now Mumbai) 1819–27. He subsequently refused the governor‐generalship of India owing to ill‐health. Among his publications are The History of India (1841, 1866) and The Rise of British Power in the East (1887).
Elton, Geoffrey Rudolph (1921–1994) Czechoslovakian‐born British historian. During World War II he worked in intelligence before teaching at Cambridge University from 1949 and becoming Regius Professor of History in 1983. His reputation was made through his study of the Tudor monarchs of England and the 'Tudor revolution' in government in the 1530s. He has since written a series of books on this and related subjects, the most well‐known being England under the Tudors and The Practice of History.
Ely Cathedral cathedral in Ely, Cambridgeshire, England. Its long nave, high west tower, adjoining transept tower, octagon, and Lady Chapel, make it a completely original composition that stands out from the flat fenland in every direction. The present cathedral was begun by Abbot Simeon, a kinsman of William the Conqueror, in 1083, though it was not the see of a bishop until 1109.
Elyot, Thomas (c. 1490–1546) English diplomat and scholar. In 1531 he published The Governour, the first treatise on education in English. He published the first Latin‐English dictionary in 1538. Thomas Elyot English diplomat and scholar 'Abstinence is whereby a man refraineth from anything which he may lawfully take.' [Thomas Elyot The Governour Pt iii ch. 16]
Page241
emancipation of women in Britain, the changing social, economic, and political role of women in the 19th and 20th centuries. The inequalities of Britain's traditionally male‐dominated society were first voiced by the English feminist Mary Wollstonecraft in the late 18th‐ century. Great advances in women's rights were made over the subsequent centuries by the women's movement, as women gained new legal rights, particularly within marriage; women's suffrage (the right to vote); and legislation against discrimination in the workplace and sexual harassment. However, by the end of the 20th century sexism still persisted in many areas of society, and the equal representation of men and women had still not been achieved, particularly at levels of seniority in certain professions.
Emmet, Robert (1778–1803) Irish nationalist leader, born in Dublin city and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he gained renown as a brilliant speaker. Active in the radical United Irishmen organization, Emmet came to prominence in the revolutionary movement after the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and appealed for French aid. In 1803 he led an unsuccessful revolt in Dublin against British rule and was captured, tried, and hanged. His youth and courage made him an Irish hero. Emmet was expelled from Trinity College for his United Irish activities in 1798. He went to Paris in 1800 to seek French support for another rising, interviewing both Napoleon and his foreign minister Talleyrand, but returned to Dublin empty‐handed in 1802. The following year Emmet began to organize a new rebellion. He planned to capture Dublin Castle with a surprise attack, but discovery, through an accidental explosion in his powder store, thwarted his plans and led to a premature rising on 23 July 1803. Several people, including the Lord Chief Justice Lord Kilwarden, were killed when Emmet's men took over Thomas Street. Although initially surprised, the authorities soon quashed the rising and Emmet, like Thomas Russell who had tried to raise the north, was executed. His speech from the dock, in which he said his epitaph would never be written till Ireland was free, led to his portrayal as a martyr by romantic nationalists of the later 19th century. Robert Emmet Irish nationalist leader 'Let my character and motives rest in obscurity and peace, till other times and other men can do them justice.' [Speech on his conviction for treason, September 1803.]
Employers and Workmen Act UK act of Parliament 1875 which limited to civil damages the penalty for a breach of contract of employment by a worker. Previously, employees who broke their contracts faced penalties imposed under criminal law.
Employer's Liability Act UK act of Parliament 1880, which obtained for workers or for their
Page242 families a right to compensation from employers whose negligence resulted in industrial injury or death at work.
Empson, Richard (died 1510) English lawyer and politician. With Edmund Dudley he was an unpopular agent of Henry VII, employed in exacting taxes and penalties due to the Crown. Both men had a reputation for harshness and tyranny. In 1491 Empson became Speaker of the House of Commons, and in 1504 chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. In the second year of Henry VIII's reign he and Dudley were both accused of treason, and were beheaded at Tower Hill.
enclosure in Britain, seizure of common land and change to private property, or the changing of open‐field systems (farming in strips apportioned over two or three large fields) to enclosed fields owned by individual farmers. The enclosed fields were often used for sheep. This process began in the 14th century and became widespread in the 15th and 16th centuries. It caused poverty, homelessness, and rural depopulation, and resulted in revolts in 1549 and 1607. A further wave of enclosures occurred between about 1760 and 1820 during the agrarian revolution.
Page243 enclosure
(Image © Research Machines plc)
Page244 The agrarian revolution saw enclosure of farmland by hedges. Enclosure made crop rotation possible and also allowed room for the use of new farm machinery that was being developed. Enclosure revolutionized the farming system and although a number of farmers profited by the system, many lost their rights to land, particularly with the restrictions to common grazing lands.
Engagement treaty between Charles I and an alliance of Scottish royalists and moderate Presbyterians 26 December 1647 by which he agreed to abolish Episcopacy and restore Presbyterianism in return for their support against the parliamentarians who had overthrown him. The Scots agreed to control the militia, abolish the army, call a new Parliament, and restore the King by force if necessary. Oliver Cromwell's parliamentarian army smashed the Scottish army at Preston August 1648, and the more radical Kirk party gained the ascendancy in Scotland. See also Heads of Proposals.
England and France, medieval the conquest of England in 1066 by William of Normandy involved England in the affairs of France, and there were few times in the Middle Ages when England and France were at peace. Under the feudal system the English crown owed feudal allegiance to the king of France for its lands in France – an irksome duty as, for most of the Middle Ages, the English monarchy was far more powerful than the French. Equally, the rulers of France wanted to unite France under their control. As the Middle Ages progressed, medieval trade and dynastic quarrels became enmeshed with growing nationalism in both countries, which intensified the conflict. Even during William (I) the Conqueror's reign, Philip I of France (reigned 1060–1108) had attacked Normandy, and William died in 1087 as a result of an accident while taking Mantes (now Mantes‐la‐Jolie), only 48 km/30 mi from Paris. Henry II's marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152 gave him a large portion of France; he became count of Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Gascony, Aquitaine, and Poitou. The French king Philip II (reigned 1180–1223) set about destroying English power. During the reign of John (I) Lackland, Philip drove the English out of Normandy, consolidating his power at the Battle of Bouvines (1214). Trouble, however, festered throughout the 13th century. Philip IV the Fair (reigned 1285–1314), taking quarrels between English and Norman sailors as an excuse, declared Gascony and Aquitaine forfeit at the beginning of 1294. Edward I of England built up a European alliance against Philip, while Philip allied himself with Scotland, beginning the traditional Franco‐Scottish alliance (the Auld Alliance), which lasted until 1560. Edward's attempts to regain his French territory in the 1290s, ending with his unsuccessful invasion of 1297–98, were hampered by risings in Wales and Scotland, as well as opposition in England. Relations with France were temporarily smoothed after 1299 by the marriage of the widowed Edward I to Philip IV's sister, Margaret. Edward's son and successor, Edward II, married a daughter of Philip IV, Isabella, in 1308. She separated from him and returned to France when her brother Charles IV the Fair seized Edward's lands in France in 1325. However, she returned to England with an invasion force in 1326 and forced Edward to abdicate in favour of their son, Edward III.
Page245 In 1337 Edward III of England claimed the throne of France through his mother Isabella, starting the Hundred Years' War. Despite famous victories such as the Battle of Agincourt (1415) – celebrated in Shakespeare's play Henry V – the English were slowly driven out of France. By 1453, when the war ended, Calais alone remained in English hands. For further details see England: history to 1485.
England and Ireland, medieval during the Middle Ages, the English crown tried but failed to extend their control over Ireland, a country that had been divided into a number of kingdoms, with the most powerful king being recognized as the high king. The Anglo‐Norman invasion of Ireland had begun haphazardly in the late 1160s by Anglo‐Norman adventurers, but full‐scale invasion took place under Henry II in 1171. However, although colonization began over large areas of land, particularly on the eastern seaboard in the area around Dublin known as the English Pale, Irish resistance, rivalries among the Anglo‐Norman colonists, and their absorption into Irish life and society, led to the conquest losing its impetus. By the end of the 15th century the attempted conquest of Ireland by the English crown remained incomplete. Norman invasion Anglo‐Norman mercenaries began to appear in Ireland from 1167, in the service of the exiled king of Leinster, Dermot MacMurrough. In 1169 MacMurrough was aided by a large Anglo‐Norman force, led by a number of barons who intended to reinstate MacMurrough and acquire land for themselves. Their figurehead, Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke (known as 'Strongbow'), arrived in 1170, married MacMurrough's daughter, and succeeded him as ruler of Leinster in 1171. At this point King Henry II of England, who had already been given permission by the pope to invade Ireland and reform the Irish church in 1151, hurried to Ireland to assume control of his barons – he feared the development of an independent Norman state on his western shore. Between 1171 and 1172 he received the submission of his barons, the Irish bishops, and most Irish kings. The Treaty of Windsor (1175) made the English crown the overlord of Ireland, with the high king of Ireland ruling as its vassal (feudal tenant) outside Leinster, Meath, and the region around Waterford. colonization The Irish were allowed to keep their own laws, but the English barons were given lands in Ireland, and immigrants were brought in from England, Wales, France, and Flanders. An English lord deputy (governor) was appointed to rule Ireland from Dublin, and Irish kings were refused security of succession. Although native Irish rulers were technically tenants of either an Anglo‐Norman baron or the English crown under the feudal system, in reality they were practically free to do as they wished. Meanwhile, the Anglo‐Norman barons (later known as the Anglo‐Irish) gradually became politically and culturally more Irish than the Gaelic Irish. decline of Anglo‐Norman and crown control King John (I) Lackland extended English law to Ireland, and fought a campaign in 1210 to bring Ireland more under English control, but his attempt failed when the Anglo‐Norman barons rebelled in 1215. In 1315 the Irish rebelled under the leadership of the Scottish earl Edward Bruce (brother of the Robert (I) the Bruce, king of Scotland) but were defeated in 1317. Edward III (reigned 1327–77) tried to reassert English control over Ireland, but failed. By 1327 nearly half the colonized Anglo‐Norman lands were held by absentee landlords who preferred not to live in Ireland, adding to the difficulties of securing control. The Black Death in Ireland caused even more
Page246 colonists, of all classes, to migrate back to England and the remaining Anglo‐Norman landlords became increasingly dependant on their Irish tenants. Under the Statutes of Kilkenny (1367) the crown restricted royal control of Ireland to the English Pale. The English settlers were prohibited from adopting the Irish language or marrying the Irish. The Irish, called 'enemies' by the Statutes, were to be left to their own devices and their own laws, and were banned from 'English' towns. Richard II (reigned 1377–99) defeated the Leinster Irish in his expedition of 1394–95, and nearly all Irish leaders and rebels submitted to his authority, but he was unable to achieve control. 15th‐century assimilation and rebellion The English Pale shrank even more in the 15th century, to the eastern counties of Louth, Meath, Dublin, and Kildare. By now Anglo‐Irish leaders were paying Irish bards (minstrels, poets, and storytellers) and historians to stress their Irish roots. The struggle for succession to the English crown in the Wars of the Roses (1455–85) made it even harder to keep royal control, and the Anglo‐Irish supported two pretenders to the English throne: Lambert Simnel, crowned in Dublin in 1487, and Perkin Warbeck, who was made welcome in Ireland in 1491. King Henry VII retaliated by appointing a new lord deputy to govern Ireland, who made all English parliamentary legislation applicable to Ireland under Poynings's Law (1494), but within two years the Anglo‐Irish had their preferred candidate reinstalled as lord deputy. By the end of the Middle Ages English control over Ireland had still not been established. For further details see Ireland: history 1154–1485, Ireland: history 1485–1603, and England: history to 1485.
England and Scotland, medieval during the Middle Ages, there were continual wars between England and Scotland, as the smaller northern kingdom tried to free itself from domination by the English kings. Scotland put pressure on England whenever the English crown was vulnerable, such as during the Norman Conquest in the 11th century, the civil war between Stephen and Matilda in the 12th century, and during the frequent wars between medieval England and France, beginning the traditional Franco‐Scottish alliance (the Auld Alliance) that lasted until 1560. Robert (I) the Bruce established the independence of the Scottish crown in the early 14th century, but attempts to extend Scottish control into England under James IV in the early 16th century were decisively defeated.
England and Wales, medieval during the Middle Ages, the English crown conquered and subdued Wales, a country that had been divided into many small principalities before the Norman Conquest. After William (I) the Conqueror established his Norman barons on the Welsh border during the Norman Conquest, the next two centuries saw a prolonged struggle against Anglo‐Norman aggression. English dominance was completed by the end of the 13th century with the defeat of Llewelyn (II) ap Gruffydd by Edward I. Although the self‐styled 'Prince of Wales', Owen Glendower made a strong bid for Welsh independence in the early 15th century, Wales was reconquered. The Act of Union (1536) formerly united Wales to England.
England: history to 1485 for the prehistory of England see Britain, ancient, and for England in the Roman period see Roman
Page247 Britain.
England: history 1485–1714 for earlier periods of English history see Britain, ancient, Roman Britain, and England: history to 1485.
English architecture, medieval during the Middle Ages (11th–mid‐16th centuries), two styles dominated English architecture: Norman, or Romanesque, (11th–12th centuries) and Gothic (late 12th–mid‐16th centuries).
English art, medieval in the Middle Ages (10th–15th centuries), Romanesque, (or Norman) medieval art (10th–12th centuries) and Gothic art (late 12th–15th centuries) were the main styles found in English art. Romanesque, or Norman, art The art of the 10th–12th centuries is chiefly evident in church architecture and church sculpture, on capitals and portals, and in manuscript illumination. Romanesque art was typified by the rounded arch, and combined naturalistic elements with the fantastic, poetical, and pattern‐loving Celtic and Germanic traditions. Imaginary beasts and medieval warriors mingle with biblical themes. The 10th‐century schools of Winchester and Canterbury produced illuminated manuscripts such as the Benedictional of St Ethelwold (about 960–80; British Museum, London). Gothic art The art of the late 12th–15th centuries developed as large cathedrals were built all over Europe, and what little sculpture has survived the destructions of the Reformation – and, later, the Civil War of the 17th century – is heavily indebted to French works. Sculptural decoration in stone became more monumental, and stained glass filled the tall windows. Figures were also carved in wood. Court patronage produced exquisite small ivories, goldsmiths' work, devotional books illustrated with miniatures, and tapestries depicting romantic tales. Popular themes included the dance of death (a representation of death leading people to the grave), particularly following the Black Death epidemic in the mid‐14th century. Examples of painting and illustration include the Luttrell Psalter (about 1340; British Museum), notable for its depictions of English life and labour; and the 14th‐century Queen Mary's Psalter (British Museum), with illustrations of biblical history and representations of medieval life and work. One of the few named figures of the period was the 13th‐century illuminator and chronicler, Matthew Paris. The late 14th‐ century Wilton Diptych (National Gallery, London), showing Richard II presented to the Virgin and Child, is a rare example of medieval English panel painting.
English literature, medieval in medieval England (12th–15th century), the ascendancy of Norman‐French culture in the post‐Conquest era, followed by the re‐emergence of native English works – by such authors as Chaucer, Langland, and Malory, and numerous anonymous authors, – marked the Middle English period of English literature. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, more lay people were literate, and the Paston Letters form one of the first records of one family's ordinary lives. These, together with a
Page248 growing number of financial and legal records, sermons, chronicles, poems, and charters, form the basis of modern historical knowledge of the period. Although the Anglo‐Saxon Chronicle continued to be written until 1154, with the arrival of a Norman ruling class at the end of the 11th century, the ascendancy of Norman‐French in cultural life began, and it was not until the 13th century that English literature regained its strength. Prose was concerned chiefly with popular devotional use, but verse emerged typically in the metrical chronicles, such as Layamon's Brut, and the numerous romances based on the stories of Charlemagne, the legends of King Arthur and the Holy Grail, and the classical episodes of Troy, derived from Homer's Iliad (c. 700 BC). First of the great English poets was Geoffrey Chaucer, author of The Canterbury Tales (c. 1387), whose early work reflected the formality of the predominant French influence, but later the realism of Renaissance Italy. Of purely native inspiration was the medieval alliterative poem Piers Plowman (1367–86) by William Langland, and the anonymous Pearl, Patience, and Gawayne and the Grene Knight. Chaucer remained unmatched in the period, although the poet John Skelton was one of Chaucer's more original successors; the first secular morality play in English, Magnyfycence (1516), was written by Skelton. More successful were the anonymous authors of songs and carols, and of the ballads, which often formed a complete cycle, such as those concerned with the outlaw Robin Hood. Many stories were carried by travelling minstrels. Drama flourished in the form of mystery plays and morality plays. Prose reached new heights in the 15th century with Thomas Malory's retelling of the Arthurian legends in Le Morte d'Arthur (c. 1470).
Englishry legal term used to denote those not of Norman stock after the Norman conquest of England 1066. A person's ethnic status would determine, for example, how they were treated by courts: murder cases in which the victim was English were deemed to be less serious than those in which the victim was a Norman. The term also applied to those areas, especially the low‐lying areas in the Marches of Wales, where 'English', meaning Anglo‐Norman, customs prevailed over Welsh law.
Ennals, David Hedley (1922–1995) British Labour politician. After entering Parliament as MP for Dover in 1964, he held several posts in Harold Wilson's government. He lost his seat in 1970 and from 1970 to 1973 was campaign director of the National Association for Mental Health. In February 1974 he was elected MP for Norwich North and in March 1974 became minister of state at the Foreign Office. He entered the Cabinet in July 1976 as secretary of state for Social Services.
environmentalism theory emphasizing the primary influence of the environment on the development of groups or individuals. It stresses the importance of the physical, biological, psychological, or cultural environment as a factor influencing the structure or behaviour of animals, including humans. In politics this has given rise in many countries to Green parties, which aim to 'preserve the planet and its people'.
Page249 Eric Bloodaxe King of Norway, succeeded 942 on the abdication of his father, Harald I Fairhair, and killed seven of his eight half‐brothers who had rebelled against him, hence his nickname. He was deposed by his youngest half‐brother Haakon 947 and fled to England, where he became ruler of the Norse kingdom of Northumbria 948. He was expelled 954 and killed in battle at Stainmore, Yorkshire (now in Cumbria).
Ermine Street ancient road of Roman origin, or possibly earlier, running from London to York, and by extension to southern Scotland. The name is also applied to the Silchester to Gloucester route. Ermine Street, along with Watling Street, and the Icknield and Foss Ways, were specially protected by the King's Peace at least from Norman times and probably earlier.
Erskine, Thomas (1750–1823) (1st Baron Erskine) British barrister and lord chancellor. He was called to the Bar in 1778 and defended a number of parliamentary reformers on charges of sedition. When the Whig Party returned to power 1806 he became lord chancellor and a baron. Among his speeches were those in defence of Lord George Gordon, Thomas Paine, and Queen Caroline.
Esher, William Baliol Brett, Viscount (1815–1899) English lawyer and politician. He was called to the Bar in 1840 and became a QC (Queen's Cousel) in 1861. In the House of Commons he was prominent in promoting bills relating to the administration of law and justice. As a justice of the Court of Common Pleas he provoked criticism for some of his sentences in strike cases. On the reconstruction of the Court of Appeal he was made a lord justice. He succeeded George Jessel as master of the rolls in 1883, and retired from the Bench in 1897, when he was made a viscount. The Solicitors Act of 1888, which enhanced the powers of the Incorporated Law Society, owed much to Esher's influence. Esher was born in London, England. He was educated at Westminster and Caius College, Cambridge.
Essex, Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex (1566–1601) English soldier and politician. Having taken part in the Dutch fight against Spain, he became a favourite with Queen Elizabeth I in 1587, but fell from grace because of his policies in Ireland, where he was Lieutenant from 1599, and was executed. Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex English soldier and politician 'I was never proud till you sought to make me too base. And now, since my destiny is no better, my despair shall be like my love was, without repentance.' [Letter to Elizabeth I 1598] Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex English soldier and politician 'Reasons are not like garments, the worse for wearing.'
Page250 [To Lord Willoughby 1598 or 1599]
Essex, Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex (1591–1646) English soldier. Eldest son of the 2nd earl, he commanded the Parliamentary army at the inconclusive English Civil War battle of Edgehill in 1642. Following a disastrous campaign in Cornwall, he resigned his command in 1645. He succeeded to the earldom in 1604. Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex English soldier 'Stone dead hath no fellow.' [Essex in conversation with Clarendon walking the bowling‐green at Piccadilly, talking about the Bill of Attainder against Strafford 26 April 1641]
Essex, Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex (c. 1541–1576) English nobleman and soldier. In 1569 he raised troops to suppress the northern rebellion under the earls of Westmorland and Northumberland, and was made earl of Essex in 1572 for his service. His attempts to subdue and colonize Ulster (1573–75) were unsuccessful, though he conducted his campaign with great cruelty. Elizabeth I recalled him in 1575, but he was reappointed earl marshal of Ireland in 1576, and died in Dublin.
Esteve‐Coll, Elizabeth Anne Loosemore (1938–) British museum administrator. Keeper of the National Art Library at the Victoria and Albert Museum 1985–88, she became director of the museum itself in 1988. Her reorganization of the museum staff 1989, when she split the administrative and research roles, led to widespread criticism and the resignation of several senior curators. She spent ten years travelling round the world with her husband before taking a degree in art history and becoming a librarian.
Ethelbert (c. 552–616) King of Kent 560–616. He was defeated by the West Saxons in 568 but later became ruler of England south of the River Humber. Ethelbert received the Christian missionary Augustine in 597 and later converted to become the first Christian ruler of Anglo‐Saxon England. He issued the first written code of laws known in England. He married a French princess, Bertha.
Ethelfleda (died 918) English princess, daughter of King Alfred. She was successful in helping her brother Edward to subdue the Danes, and on the death of her husband Ethelred, a high‐ranking noble of Mercia 911, she ruled his lands alone, and was called the 'Lady of the Mercians'. She built fortresses to resist the Danes.
Page251 Ethelred (II) the Unready (968–1016) King of England from 978, following the murder of his half‐brother, Edward the Martyr. He was son of King Edgar. Ethelred tried to buy off the Danish raiders by paying Danegeld. In 1002 he ordered the massacre of the Danish settlers, provoking an invasion by Sweyn I of Denmark. War with Sweyn and Sweyn's son, Canute, occupied the rest of Ethelred's reign. His nickname is a corruption of the Old English 'unreed', meaning badly counselled or poorly advised. W C and R J Sellar and Yeatman English writers '... called the Unready because he was never ready when the Danes were.' [On Ethelred the Unready, in 1066 And All That ch. 8]
Ethelred I Anglo‐Saxon king of Wessex 865–71, son of Ethelwulf and elder brother of Alfred the Great. Together with his brother Alfred he resisted a large‐scale invasion of East Anglia in 865 by the Danes, defending Mercia and forcing them to abandon Nottingham in 868. The Danes established a stronghold in Reading in 870 and Ethelred drove them out then defeated them at Ashdown in 871. He died of wounds sustained in this battle in April 871. Despite some defeats shortly after, Ethelred had paved the way for Wessex to unite England in opposition to the Danes.
Ethelwulf Anglo‐Saxon king of Wessex 839–56 and father of Alfred the Great and Ethelred I. Before succeeding his father, Egbert, to the throne of Wessex, Ethelwulf had been sub‐king of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, and Essex. He had mixed success against the great Danish armies of the mid‐9th century: at first he was defeated at sea 842, but recovered to rout the Danes at Aclea 851. In 855 he made a pilgrimage to Rome and on his return married a Frankish princess. Ethelred succeeded him on his death as Ethelred had succeeded his father, and this established the West Saxon tradition of succession from father to son.
Evans, Edward Ratcliffe (1881–1957) British naval commander. Evans was second‐in‐command of the ill‐fated Antarctic Expedition of 1909 and led the expedition safely home after the death of Capt Scott 1913. During World War I, he commanded HMS Broke in the Dover Patrol.
Exclusion Bills in England, series of measures in the reigns of Charles I and II attempting to exclude Catholics from office. The first bill, proposed June 1641, aimed to exclude bishops from sitting in parliament in order to weaken Charles I's support in the House of Lords. The measure was initially rejected by the Lords, but after Charles' attempt to arrest the Five Members it was reintroduced, becoming law February 1642. From 1678–81 a series of measures were proposed during the Exclusion Crisis which were designed to bar Charles II's Catholic brother, James, duke of York, from the throne. A bill was introduced in the aftermath of the Popish Plot to ensure
Page252 the succession of Charles' illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth and Charles dissolved parliament to prevent the bill's passage. A similar measure was introduced 1680 but was rejected by the House of Lords. Charles summoned the next parliament to Oxford, but another exclusion bill was put forward 1681 and Charles again dissolved parliament.
Exeter Cathedral cathedral church of St Peter in Exeter, Devon, England, around whose foundations exist remains of the Roman baths and Saxon conventual buildings. It springs from a monastic church established by Athelstan in 932 and rebuilt by Canute in 1017. From the outside the cathedral is most remarkable for its massive transeptal towers (1112–33), which leave unbroken the great roof, 90 m/295 ft long. The magnificent Gothic interior is built to one plan, unlike any other English cathedral except Salisbury.
eyre in English history, one of the travelling courts set up by Henry II 1176 to enforce conformity to the king's will; they continued into the 13th century. Justices in eyre were the judges who heard pleas at these courts.
F Fabian Society UK socialist organization for research, discussion, and publication, founded in London in 1884. Its name is derived from the Roman commander Fabius Maximus, and refers to the evolutionary methods by which it hopes to attain socialism by a succession of gradual reforms. Early members included the playwright George Bernard Shaw and Beatrice and Sidney Webb. The society helped to found the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, which became the Labour Party in 1906. William Hamilton Scottish Labour politician 'Britain is not a country that is easily rocked by revolution.... In Britain our institutions evolve. We are a Fabian Society writ large.' [My Queen and I (1975)]
factory act in Britain, an act of Parliament which governs conditions of work, hours of labour, safety, and sanitary provision in factories and workshops. In the 19th century legislation was progressively introduced to regulate conditions of work. The first legislation was the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802. Much early legislation regulated conditions for women and children, but men were also gradually brought within the protection of the law. In 1833 the first factory inspectors were appointed. Legislation was extended to offices, shops, and railway premises in 1963. All employees are now covered by the Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, which is enforced by the Health and Safety Executive.
Page253 Dark Satanic Mills: The Industrial Revolution in Britain The Industrial Revolution in Britain The British economy changed dramatically in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Technological innovation, agricultural development, communications improvements, growing trade, and the increased consumer demand and labour supply afforded by a rising population took Britain to the forefront of economic progress. These changes had a profound impact on the lives and the mental outlook of contemporaries. Technological development Though the rate of industrialization in Britain in the late 18th century was less impressive than used to be believed, and was restricted to only a few sectors (notably cotton textiles and metallurgy), a sense of economic change and the possibilities of progress was powerfully obvious to many contemporary observers. A popular metaphor was that of Prometheus Unbound, of extraordinary opportunities offered by technological innovation. John Kay's flying shuttle of 1733, which was in general use in Yorkshire by the 1780s, increased the productivity of hand‐loom weavers. James Hargreaves' spinning jenny c. 1764, Richard Arkwright's 'spinning frame' 1768, and Samuel Crompton's mule 1779 revolutionized textile spinning. Arkwright and his partners built a number of cotton mills in Lancashire and the Midlands with all the characteristic features of factory system, including the precise division of labour and the cooperation of workers in different manufacturing processes. Cotton production grew by nearly 13% in the 1780s. In 1769 James Watt patented a more energy‐efficient use of steam engines. Steam pumps removed water from deep coal mines, and steam‐powered winding engines were introduced in the early 1790s. Coal production increased rapidly, allowing a similar increase in the production of iron and lead. Canals and waggon‐ways built to move coal prompted a wider revolution in transportation: for example, the 4th Duke of Portland built a new harbour at Troon on the west coast of Scotland 1808, linked to his coal pits at Kilmarnock by a waggon‐ way which during 1839 carried over 130,000 tons of coal. The coalfields attracted new, heavy industry, particularly in South Wales, Strathclyde, Northeast England, West Yorkshire, South Lancashire, the Vale of Trent, and the West Midlands. The smelting of iron and steel using coke, rather than charcoal, freed a major industry from dependence on wood supplies, while technological development spurred by Britain's wars and the demands of an Empire revolutionized the secondary metallurgical industries, especially gun founding. The percentage of the male labour force employed in industry rose from 19 in 1700 to 30 in 1800. The social dimension The strains of industrialization in the early 19th century caused much social and political tension. Improvements in working conditions brought about by technological changes were very gradual, with the result that general living standards only began to rise noticeably after mid‐century. The social – and indeed biological – pressure placed on the bulk of the population by the emergence of industrial work methods and economics is indicated by a marked decline in the height of army recruits in the second quarter of the century. Working conditions were often unpleasant and hazardous with, for example, numerous fatalities in mining accidents. The Factory Acts regulating conditions of employment in the textile industry still left work there both long and arduous. The 1833 Act established a factory inspectorate and prevented the employment of under‐9s, but 9–13 year olds could still work 8‐hour days, and 13–17 year olds 12 hours. The 1844 Act cut that of under‐13s to 6 and a half hours, and of 18‐year olds and all women to 12; those of 1847 and 1850 reduced the hours of women and under‐18s to 10 hours. Despite such legislation, there were still about 5,000 half‐timers under 13 in the Bradford worsted industry in 1907. If the bulk of the working population faced difficult circumstances, the situation was even worse for those more marginal to
Page254 the new economy. 'Hell is a city much like London – A populous and a smoky city;' The poet Shelley's comment in Peter Bell the Third 1819 seemed increasingly appropriate. Fast‐expanding towns became crowded and polluted, a breeding ground for disease. In 1852, 8,032 of the 9,453 houses in Newcastle lacked toilets. Britain the world leader The Industrial Revolution gave Britain a distinctive economy. It became the world leader in industrial production and foreign trade. The annual averages of coal and lignite production, in million metric tons, for 1820–24 were 18 for Britain, compared with 2 for France, Germany, Belgium, and Russia combined. The comparable figures for 1855–59 were 68 and 32, and for 1880–84 159 and 108. The annual production of pig‐iron in million metric tons in 1820 was 0.4 for Britain and the same for the rest of Europe, in 1850 2.3 and 0.9, and in 1880 7.9 and 5.4. Raw cotton consumption in thousand metric tons in 1850 was 267 for Britain and 162 for the rest of Europe. Britain was the workshop of the world.
Fairfax, Thomas (1612–1671) (3rd Baron Fairfax) English general, commander‐in‐chief of the Parliamentary army in the English Civil War. With Oliver Cromwell he formed the New Model Army and defeated Charles I at the Battle of Naseby. He opposed the king's execution, resigned in protest against the invasion of Scotland in 1650, and participated in the restoration of Charles II after Cromwell's death. Knighted in 1640, he succeeded to the barony in 1648.
fairs in the middle ages, large scale gatherings combining trade with sideshows and other entertainment. Unlike markets which were usually weekly and local, fairs took place only once or twice a year and so attracted commercial buyers from great distances. Many now survive as civic festivals, such as Nottingham's Goose Fair or Oxford's St. Giles' Fair, but modern trade fairs, such as the Farnborough Air Show, maintain the tradition. In the USA, each state holds an annual fair in the autumn that combines agricultural and business exhibits with rides and games; the largest is the Texas State Fair. Many counties or regions within states also hold fairs during that season.
Faithfull, Emily (1835–1895) British philanthropist and writer. She was devoted to the improvement of the status, remuneration, and working conditions of women. Her publications include Change upon Change (1868) and Three Visits to America (1884). In 1860, she started the Victoria Press, employing women to do the printing. Between 1863 and 1881, she published the Victoria Magazine, and used it as a platform to plead for greater equality between the sexes.
Falaise, treaty of treaty 1174 between King William I of Scotland and Henry II of England
Page255 under which William became Henry's vassal. William had been captured at Alnwick during an invasion of England and was imprisoned in Normandy until he and the Scottish nobility agreed to swear loyalty to Henry.
Falkender, Marcia Matilda (1932–) (Baroness Falkender; or Marcia Williams) English political worker, private and political secretary to Labour prime minister Harold Wilson from 1956. She was influential in the 'kitchen cabinet' of the 1964–70 government, as described in her book Inside No 10 (1972).
Falkirk, Battle of battle 22 July 1298 at Falkirk, 37 km/23 mi west of Edinburgh at which Edward I of England defeated the Scots. Sir William Wallace faced the English in open battle, but his cavalry fled and his spearmen were outmatched by the English archers. The battle led to Wallace's fall from power.
Falkland, Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount (c. 1610–1643) English soldier and politician. He was elected to the Long Parliament 1640 and tried hard to secure a compromise peace between Royalists and Parliamentarians. He was killed at the Battle of Newbury in the Civil War. Viscount 1633. Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland English soldier and politician 'When it is not necessary to change, it is necessary not to change.' [Speech concerning Episcopacy in House of Commons 22 November 1641, quoted in A Discourse of Infallibility 1660]
Falklands War war between Argentina and Britain over disputed sovereignty of the Falkland Islands initiated when Argentina invaded and occupied the islands on 2 April 1982. On the following day, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution calling for Argentina to withdraw. A British task force was immediately dispatched and, after a fierce conflict in which more than 1,000 Argentine and British lives were lost, 12,000 Argentine troops surrendered and the islands were returned to British rule on 14–15 June 1982. In April 1990 Argentina's congress declared the Falkland Islands and other British‐held South Atlantic islands part of the new Argentine province of Tierra del Fuego. Brian Hanrahan English TV and radio correspondent 'Tuesday 15 June Stanley woke up to find it was back under British rule. The British soldiers didn't look like men who had just walked across the island but they had, every step of the way on their own two feet. Fifty miles they'd come over mountains and bogs in weather that chilled the bone and soaked the skin, and at the end of it they'd fought bravely and well.' [BBC TV news report of 25 June 1982, recorded in I Counted Them All Out and I Counted Them All Back (1982)]
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Terence Lewin Former Admiral of the Fleet 'For an evil military dictatorship to get away with unprovoked aggression at this part of the 20th century would have made the world a much more dangerous place to live in.' [Who died on 24 January 1999 on the Falklands War; Daily Telegraph, 25 January 1999]
Faulkner, (Arthur) Brian (Deane) (1921–1977) (Baron Faulkner of Downpatrick) Northern Irish Unionist politician and the last prime minister of Northern Ireland 1971–72 before the Stormont parliament was suspended. Elected to the Northern Ireland House of Commons in 1949, he held various ministerial posts 1959–71, and became leader of the Unionist Party in 1971. As prime minister he adopted a tough stance against republicans, reintroducing internment in 1971, but also tried to win middle‐class Catholic support by offering nationalists a role in the parliamentary committee system. In 1973 he committed his party to the ill‐fated Sunningdale power‐sharing agreement. Born in Helen's Bay, County Down and educated at St Columba's College, Dublin, Faulkner joined the family shirtmaking business before securing election to Stormont. He was elected Unionist MP for East Down 1929–73 and was successively appointed minister for home affairs (1959–63), commerce (1963–69), and development 1969–71. Considered a hard–liner, Faulkner opposed prime minister Terence O'Neill's liberal policies and his resignation from the cabinet helped bring O'Neill down in 1969. He was beaten by one vote for the leadership of the Unionist Party by James Chichester‐Clarke but succeeded him in March 1971. Faulkner lost much Unionist support following the failure of internment and the suspension of Stormont by Edward Heath's government in 1972. He committed his party to the Sunningdale power‐ sharing agreement in December 1973, briefly leading the executive, but lost further support when Sunningdale collapsed following a loyalist strike. He resigned from politics in 1976 and was made Baron in 1977.
Fawcett, Millicent (1847–1929) (born Millicent Garrett) English suffragist and social reformer, younger sister of Elizabeth Garrett Anderson. A non‐militant, she rejected the violent acts of some of her contemporaries in the suffrage movement. She joined the London Suffrage Committee in 1868 and became president of the Women's Unionist Association in 1889. She was president of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWWS) 1897–1919.
Page257 Fawcett
(Image © Billie Love)
Page258 Mrs Henry Fawcett, the English campaigner who was a leading figure in the movement for women's rights for over fifty years. She founded a new women's suffrage society, later uniting the various separate organizations into the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies. Opposed to the militant tactics of the Pankhursts, she believed that the enfranchisement of women could be achieved by peaceful means.
Fawkes, Guy (1570–1606) English conspirator in the Gunpowder Plot to blow up King James I and the members of both Houses of Parliament. Fawkes, a Roman Catholic convert, was arrested in the cellar underneath the House of Lords on 4 November 1605, tortured, and executed. The event is still commemorated in Britain and elsewhere every 5 November with bonfires, fireworks, and the burning of the 'guy', an effigy. Fawkes was born in York of Protestant parents. He became a Roman Catholic, and served in the Spanish army in the Netherlands from 1593 to 1604. The leader of the conspiracy, Robert Catesby, asked him to return to England to take part in the plot. Probably because of his experience as a soldier and his reputation for courage and coolness, he was entrusted with actually carrying out the plan. The plot was betrayed to the government, and, under torture, Fawkes revealed the names of his fellow conspirators, but, by then, they had already been captured at Holbeach. Anonymous 'Please to remember the fifth of November, / Gunpowder Treason and Plot. / We know no reason why gunpowder treason / Should be forgot.' [Traditional] Guy Fawkes English conspirator 'A desperate disease requires a desperate remedy.' [Attributed remark.] Antonia Fraser English writer 'Guido's composure was astonishing. Yes, he had intended to blow up the King and the Lords. No, he had no regrets – except the fact that he had not succeeded. 'The devil and not God', he said firmly, was responsible for the discovery of the Plot. No, he had not sought to warn the Catholic peers, he would have contented himself with praying for them.' [Describing the questioning of Guido (Guy) Fawkes in The Gunpowder Plot: Terror and Faith in 1605 (1996)]
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Felton, John (1595–1628) English assassin. As a lieutenant in the army, he applied to the Duke of Buckingham for promotion and, when this was refused, he stabbed Buckingham to death, for which he was hanged. He was born into an old Suffolk family. On his way to the Tyburn gallows, the crowd publicly blessed him for delivering them from the hated duke.
Fenian movement Irish‐American republican secret society, founded in the USA in 1858 to campaign for Irish‐American support for armed rebellion following the death of the Irish nationalist leader Daniel O'Connell and the break‐up of Young Ireland. Its name, a reference to the ancient Irish legendary warrior band of the Fianna, became synonymous with underground Irish republicanism in the 19th century. The collapse of the movement began when an attempt to establish an independent Irish republic by an uprising in Ireland in 1867 failed, as did raids into Canada in 1866 and 1870, and England in 1867. In the 1880s the US‐based Fenian society Clan‐Na‐Gael conducted assassinations and bombings through its agents in England and Ireland in an attempt to force Irish home rule. The Fenian movement was initiated by James O'Mahony, Michael Doheny (1805–1863), and James Stephens. O'Mahony ran operations in the USA and Stephens was in charge of Ireland, where the movement emerged as the Irish Republican Brotherhood after 1867. Fenian ideology revolved around the notion of England as an evil power, a mystic commitment to Ireland, and a belief that an independent Irish republic was morally superior to Britain. A Fenian was more likely to be an artisan than a farmer, and the movement found its greatest support in towns. Although a secret organization, James Stephens published a newspaper, Irish People (1863), which compromised Fenian secrecy. Charles Kickham, its leader writer from 1863, was chairman of the Supreme Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood 1873–82. Anonymous 'We are the Fenian Brotherhood, skilled in the arts of war, And we're going to fight for Ireland, the land that we adore.' ['Song of the Fenian Brotherhood'.] Michael Scanlan Irish poet 'See who comes over the red‐blossomed heather, / Their green banners kissing the pure mountain air... / ...From mountain and valley, / 'Tis Liberty's rally – / Out and make way for the bold Fenian Men!' ['The Bold Fenian Men']
Page260 Fenwick, John (1645–1697) English Jacobite conspirator and professional soldier. A passionate supporter of James II, he was arrested in 1696 for his involvement in a plot to assassinate William III. He was subsequently beheaded.
Ferard, Elizabeth Catherine English deaconess. Inspired by the Lutheran Kaiserwerth community in Germany, where the deaconess order or diaconate, a nursing order, had been revived with the establishment of the first Protestant hospital (1836), she pioneered the work of the order within the Church of England. She founded a house in London in 1861, and was 'set apart' as a deaconess in 1862. By 1873 the bishops had drawn up guidelines for deaconesses in the church at large. Ferard visited the Kaiserwerth community in 1858, and offered to promote the order in England. She undertook a common rule of life with two companions in a house near Kings Cross in 1861 and Archibald Campbell Tait, bishop of London, made her a deaconess the following year. Although she resigned as leader in 1873, due to ill health, her ideas had already been adopted by other dioceses.
Ferguson, Robert (c. 1637–1714) (called 'the Plotter') Scottish pamphleteer and conspirator. He played a leading part in the conspiracies against Charles II and James II, and supported William of Orange, before crossing over to the Jacobites. He was born in Aberdeenshire and spent most of his life involved in various political intrigues. He became vicar of Godmersham, Kent, but was ousted in 1662 by the Act of Uniformity. William's failure to give him the recognition he believed he deserved led him to transfer his services to the Jacobites.
Ferrers, Lawrence Shirley, 4th Earl (1720–1760) English peer. In 1760, he was hanged at Tyburn for killing his steward in a fit of temper, and became the last peer to be put to death as a criminal in England.
Festival of Britain artistic and cultural festival held in London May–September 1951 both to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Great Exhibition and to boost morale after years of post‐war austerity. The South Bank of the Thames formed the focal point of the event and the Royal Festival Hall built specially for the festival is a reminder of the modernist style of architecture promoted at the time.
Fidei Defensor Latin for the title of 'Defender of the Faith' (still retained by British sovereigns) conferred by Pope Leo X on Henry VIII of England in 1521 to reward his writing of a treatise against the Protestant Martin Luther.
Field, Winston Joseph (1904–1969) English‐born Rhodesian politician. He went to Rhodesia in 1921 and, in 1958, entered politics, becoming prime minister in 1962. In 1964, he was succeeded by the more militant Ian Smith. He was educated at Bromsgrove School, England. Before going into politics, he was a successful tobacco farmer.
Page261 Fiennes, Celia (1662–1741) English writer. She recorded vivid descriptions of her extensive journeys throughout England and Scotland, mostly between 1685 and 1703. Travelling on horseback and by coach, staying at inns or with relatives, she commented on towns, roads, inns, religious practices, and particularly on local trade and industry. Her diaries, Through England on a Side Saddle in the time of William and Mary, were first published in 1888. Fiennes was born at Newton Toney, near Salisbury, into a Puritan, anti‐monarchist family. Her travels were supposedly undertaken for her health, but she admitted that they were inspired by curiosity. During her 'Great Journey' of 1698 she travelled over 1,600 km/1,000 miles.
Fifteen, the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, led by the 'Old Pretender'James Edward Stuart and the Earl of Mar, in order to place the former on the English throne. Mar was checked at Sheriffmuir, Scotland, and the revolt collapsed. events Mar raised the standard in Scotland on 6 September 1715, and eight days later he captured Perth. The rebellion was also supported by risings in the Lowlands of Scotland and the north of England, and by a naval attack on Plymouth. In England, 'German George' was not liked, and the revolt hoped to gain from the hatred in Scotland of the Act of Union. However, the rebellion was badly organized. Mar waited in Perth for nearly two months, allowing the government forces, led by the Duke of Argyll, to seize Stirling. He then failed to co‐ordinate his moves with the rebellions in the Lowlands and the north of England. In November, the attack on Plymouth failed, the rebellion in the north of England was defeated at Preston, and Muir's army of 12,000 failed to defeat Argyll's 3,000 soldiers at the battle of Sheriffmuir. Also, by that time it was clear that the hoped‐for French troops were not going to arrive. When James Edward Stuart arrived on 22 December 1715, he found that he was too late – the rebellion collapsed.
Fifth Monarchy Men 17th century millenarian sect, particularly strong in Wales, which believed that the rule of Christ and his saints was imminent. The sect's name derives from a prophesy in the Book of Daniel that four ancient monarchies (Assyrian, Persian, Macedonian, and Roman) would precede Christ's return. The movement thrived during the interregnum of the 1650s and originally supported Oliver Cromwell until his increasing role seemed at odds with their principals. Subsequently they were persecuted and, despite an abortive rising in London January 1661, they disappeared with the Restoration.
Fillan, St (died 777) Irish churchman. The son of a Munster prince, he became abbot of the monastery on the Holy Loch in Argyll, Scotland, but withdrew to Upper Glendochart (Strathfillan). In 1318 Robert (I) the Bruce re‐established an Augustinian priory there.
Finian, St Irish churchman. His birthplace is thought to be Idrone, in County Carlow. He founded the monastery of Clonard, in County Meath, and chronicles relate that he taught 3,000 pupils there.
Page262 Fire of London fire 2–5 September 1666 that destroyed four‐fifths of the City of London. It broke out in a bakery in Pudding Lane and spread as far west as the Temple. It destroyed 87 churches, including St Paul's Cathedral, and 13,200 houses, although fewer than 20 people lost their lives. John Evelyn English diarist and author 'This fatal night about ten, began that deplorable fire near Fish Street in London ... all the sky were of a fiery aspect, like the top of a burning oven, and the light seen above 40 miles round about for many nights.' ['Diary', 23 September 1666] Samuel Pepys English diarist 'So I rode down to the waterside . . . and there saw a lamentable fire. . . poor people staying in their houses as long as till the very fire touched them . . . and among other things, the poor pigeons, I perceive, were loth to leave their houses, but hovered about the windows and balconies, till they some of them burned their wings and fell down.' [On the Fire of London, Diary, 2 September 1666]
first fruits and tenths in England, a form of tax on clergy taking up a benefice. They had to pay a portion of their first year's income (known as annates) and a tenth of their revenue annually thereafter. Originally the money was paid to the papacy, but Henry VIII's Annates Act 1532 diverted the money to the Crown as part of his campaign to pressure the pope into granting him a divorce. Thomas Cromwell set up a special financial administration for these revenues and they later passed under the control of the Exchequer. During the 18th century, these payments formed the basis of Queen Anne's Bounty.
Firth, Charles Harding (1857–1936) English historian. He was regius professor of modern history at Oxford University where his principal field of study was the English Civil War period. His works include Scotland and the Commonwealth (1895). Born in Sheffield, he was educated at Clifton and Balliol College, Oxford. Among his other publications are Journal of Joachim Hane (1896), Scotland and the Protectorate (1899), Oliver Cromwell (1900), Cromwell's Army (1901), and The House of Lords during the Civil War (1910), Ludlow's Memoirs (1894), and The Clarke Papers (1891–1901). He also produced editions of lives of Col Hutchinson (1885) and the Duke of Newcastle (1886). He was knighted in 1922.
Fishbourne Palace Romano‐British villa, near Chichester in West Sussex, dating from the 1st century AD; several magnificent mosaics remain. It may have been built for the Roman client king, Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus who ruled in that area. Originally a Roman supply centre, a palace was built with gardens and baths around AD 60 and about 15 years later, a larger complex was erected, extending well over 10
Page263 acres and centred on a large quadrangle with gardens. There were reception rooms, guest suites to the east and north, with the main living quarters looking south over the sea. It was destroyed by fire in the 3rd century.
Fisher, (Norman Fenwick) Warren (1879–1948) British civil servant. In 1919 Fisher became permanent secretary to the Treasury and head of the Civil Service. He did much to reorganize the Treasury and to promote high standards of conduct in the civil service as a whole. His idea that permanent secretaries should always be accounting officers, with responsibility for policy and finance, became civil‐service practice in 1925.
Fisher, Herbert Albert Laurens (1865–1940) English politician and historian. He became a Liberal MP in 1916 and was President of the Board of Education. His major historical work was the three‐volume History of Europe (1935). Born in London, he was educated at Winchester, at New College, Oxford, and at Paris and Göttingen. He was a tutor and lecturer in modern history at Oxford and was vice chancellor of Sheffield University 1912–16. While president of the Board of Education, he was responsible for the 1918 Education Act, and he kept the post until the fall of Lloyd George's second coalition government in 1922. Between 1918 and 1926 he sat in the Commons as a National Liberal and from 1925 to his death he was warden of New College, Oxford. His other publications include The Medieval Empire (1898), The Political History of England (1906), and The Whig Historians (1928), which is an exposition of his philosophy of history.
Fisher, John Arbuthnot (1841–1920) (1st Baron Fisher) British admiral, First Sea Lord 1904–10, when he carried out many radical reforms and innovations, including the introduction of the dreadnought battleship. KCB 1894, Baron 1909. He served in the Crimean War 1855 and the China War 1859–60. He held various commands before becoming First Sea Lord, and returned to the post 1914, but resigned the following year, disagreeing with Winston Churchill over sending more ships to the Dardanelles, Turkey, in World War I.
Fitch, Ralph (c. 1550–1611) English merchant adventurer. Fitch travelled overland to India with John Newberry, setting out in 1583 and returning in 1591. The account of this journey was published by Hakluyt in the second edition of his Principall Navigations (1599).
Fitton, Mary (c. 1578–c. 1647) English courtier and maid of honour to Queen Elizabeth I. Fitton was one of the performers in the masque at the wedding of Lord Herbert in 1600, shortly afterwards becoming his mistress. Attempts have been made to identify her with the 'dark lady' of Shakespeare's sonnets.
Fitzgerald Irish family that bore the title Earl of Desmond; the family line ended in 1583.
Page264 Fitzgerald (or the Geraldines) in Irish history, one of the great Anglo‐Irish houses, founded in 1170 by the Anglo‐Norman baron Maurice Fitzgerald, 'the Invader' (d. 1176), with lands at Maynooth, Kildare, granted in 1176. Kildare, and later Desmond, were the two main family branches; the earls of Desmond, with lands in Munster, being the first to gain national prominence in the 14th and 15th centuries. The earls of Kildare enjoyed unprecedented supremacy in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, until their rebellion of 1534–36, following Tudor attempts to curb their power, ended the family's dominance. In the 18th century the Kildares regained political importance, being rewarded with the hereditary dukedom of Leinster in 1766, but they retired from national public life after the Act of Union (1800). The line continues in Maurice Fitzgerald, 9th Duke of Leinster (1976–).
Fitzgerald, Edward (1763–1798) Irish nationalist politician. As a member of the Society of United Irishmen, he played a leading part in the abortive Irish Rebellion of 1798. The plot was betrayed and Fitzgerald, with a price of £1,000 on his head, sustained a fatal wound while being arrested in Dublin. Fitzgerald was born in Carton House, County Kildare, a younger son of the 1st Duke of Leinster. He joined the British army and served in New Brunswick, Canada, during the American Revolution (1775–83). At the end of the war, though retaining his army commission, he was elected to represent Athy in the Irish parliament. Increasingly drawn to radical politics, Fitzgerald went to Paris in 1792 to experience the French Revolution at first hand. He was dismissed from the army for attending a political rally there, and also renounced his aristocratic title. After joining the United Irishmen in 1796, he and his fellow patriot Wolfe Tone secured the help of a small French invasion force to launch the 1798 rebellion.
Fitzgerald, Gerald (1487–1534) (9th Earl of Kildare; called 'the Young') Irish political leader. The son of the governor Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th Earl, he was appointed lord high treasurer of Ireland in 1504 and served three terms as lord deputy (1513–20, 1524–28, and 1532–34). These were interrupted by English attempts at direct rule, and he was held in custody on several occasions in England. During his final term of imprisonment, rumours of his execution led his son Thomas Fitzgerald to begin the disastrous Kildare uprising. Fitzgerald was educated in England, where he had been left by his father as guarantee to the Tudor dynasty of his good conduct. He assumed the earldom and governorship but was distrusted by Henry VIII's close advisor Thomas Cromwell. Although he survived attempts to overthrow him in 1519 and 1526, Fitzgerald was wounded in battle and became vulnerable to intriguing by the Butlers, earls of Ormond and relatives of the new queen, Anne Boleyn. On their instigation he was summoned to London to answer charges of disloyalty, was imprisoned and died in the Tower.
Fitzgerald, Thomas (1513–1537) (10th Earl of Kildare; called 'Silken Thomas') Lord Deputy of Ireland, and leader of the Kildare uprising against Henry VIII in 1534–35. Despite the capture of Dublin, the rebellion failed, Tudor rule in Ireland was consolidated, and Fitzgerald was imprisoned in the Tower of London. He and his five uncles, who had helped him undertake the insurrection, were hanged, drawn, and quartered at Tyburn.
Page265 Thomas was the son of Gerald Fitzgerald, 9th Earl, and was appointed acting lord deputy by his father when the latter was summoned to England in 1534 to answer charges of disloyalty. When rumours reached him that his father had been executed in London, he renounced his allegiance to Henry VIII, and declared loyalty to the Pope. His attack on Dublin Castle was unsuccessful, but after taking the town his forces murdered Archbishop John Alen. Henry VIII's appointee as lord deputy, William Skeffington, retook Dublin and stormed Fitzgerald's base at Maynooth. Fitzgerald surrendered on a guarantee of personal safety from the English commander, which was then revoked.
Fitzgibbon, John (1749–1802) (1st Earl of Clare) Irish Unionist politician and lawyer. As lord chancellor of Ireland, he opposed all moves towards Catholic emancipation, and was instrumental in having the pro‐Catholic lord lieutenant, William Wentworth Fitzwilliam, dismissed from office after just a few months in 1795. Thereafter, he was a prominent supporter of the Act of Union that merged the British and Irish Parliaments. Born near Donnybrook, Dublin, Fitzgibbon studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and Christ Church, Oxford, and was called to the Irish Bar in 1772. He entered the Irish Parliament in 1778 and became Irish attorney‐general in 1783. When appointed lord chancellor in 1789, he was the first Irishman to hold the post for almost a century. He was popularly despised for his fervent support for the union, and at his funeral in Dublin his coffin was pelted with dead cats.
Fitzherbert, Maria Anne (1756–1837) (born Maria Anne Smythe) Wife of the Prince of Wales, later George IV. She became Mrs Fitzherbert by her second marriage in 1778 and, after her husband's death in 1781, entered London society. She secretly married the Prince of Wales in 1785 and finally parted from him in 1803. She had been twice widowed before marrying the future George IV. The marriage was in contravention of the Royal Marriages Act of 1772, and therefore not recognized. Moreover, because Mrs Fitzherbert was a Roman Catholic, marriage to her would have lost the Prince of Wales his succession to the throne under the Act of Settlement of 1701. George married Princess Caroline of Brunswick in 1795.
Fitzstephen, William (died c. 1191) English biographer of Thomas à Becket. Fitzstephen's Life and Passion of Archbishop Becket was written in 1174 and printed in 1723. He was present at Becket's death.
Fitzurse, Reginald (lived 1170) Anglo‐Norman knight. Fitzurse was one of Thomas à Becket's murderers. He is said to have died in Palestine while paying penance for Becket's death.
Fitzwilliam, Richard (1745–1816) (7th Viscount Fitzwilliam of Meryon) Irish peer, founder by bequest of the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge.
Fitzwilliam, William Wentworth, Viscount Fitzwilliam (1748–1833) British statesman. An enthusiastic Whig, Fitzwilliam was among those who joined William Pitt in 1794. He became lord lieutenant of Ireland later
Page266 that year, but was recalled after he aided the Roman Catholics. When Grenville became Prime Minister, Fitzwilliam served as president of the council.
five articles of Perth reforms imposed on the Kirk (Scottish church) in 1618 by James VI in an attempt to bring it into line with the English church. The articles were ratified by the Scots Parliament in 1621, despite vehement opposition from some Protestant elements who regarded them as an attempt to make the Scottish church more Catholic; they were rejected by the General Assembly of the Kirk in 1638. The measures mainly concerned matters of order and reverence, such as kneeling when receiving communion, observance of Christmas and Easter, communion for the dying, and infant baptism and confirmation.
Five Boroughs five East Midlands towns of Leicester, Lincoln, Derby, Stamford, and Nottingham. They were settled by Danish soldiers in the 9th and 10th centuries, and formed an independent confederation within the Danelaw. Their laws contained the first provision in England for a jury to find someone guilty by a majority verdict.
five members five prominent members of parliament who Charles I tried to have arrested 4 January 1642 for alleged treason. Charles tried to persuade the Lords to arrest the five – John Hampden, Sir Arthur Haselrig, Baron Holles, William Strode, and John Pym – on charges of treason for their negotiations with the Scots and a perceived threat to his Catholic queen, Henrietta Maria. When the Lords refused to comply, the king came to the Commons himself with 400 armed men but the members were forewarned and escaped by river to the City of London, where they were received as heroes rather than traitors. The whole affair increased the perception that Charles was not to be trusted and led to the exclusion of bishops from the House of Lords.
Five Mile Act In England, act of 1665 forbidding dissenting clergy from coming within five miles of their former parishes or of any large towns, unless they swore an oath of nonresistance. The act, part of the post‐Restoration attempt to entrench Anglicanism, also tried to prevent dissenters from becoming teachers. Most of the act's effects were repealed by 1689 but it was not formally abolished until 1812.
Flambard, Ranulf (died 1128) Norman‐born Chief Justiciar of England under William II. Flambard was William's chief adviser. He became bishop of Durham in 1099 but on Henry I's accession was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Flambard escaped from the Tower and was later pardoned, regaining his bishopric.
Fleet prison royal prison in the City of London dating from the 12th century. It originally received prisoners committed by the Star Chamber, an offshoot of the king's council, and was later used to house debtors until it was closed in 1842. It was pulled down two years later.
Fleetwood, Charles (1618–1692) English Parliamentary general. Fleetwood climbed the ranks of the Parliamentary army to become a major‐general and one of Oliver Cromwell's 'lords'. In 1659 he assisted in the overthrow of Richard Cromwell, and was made lieutenant‐ general and commander‐in‐chief by the revived Rump Parliament. His
Page267 powers were later withdrawn. Fleetwood was married three times, and his second wife, Bridget, was Oliver Cromwell's daughter.
Fleming, Alexander (1881–1955) Scottish bacteriologist who was awarded a Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1945 for his discovery of the bactericidal effect of penicillin in 1928. In 1922 he had discovered lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme present in saliva, nasal secretions, and tears. While studying this, he found an unusual mould growing on a culture dish, which he isolated and grew into a pure culture. This led to his discovery of penicillin, which came into use in 1941. He shared the award with Howard W Florey and Ernst B Chain, whose research had brought widespread realization of the value of penicillin with its isolation and its development as an antibiotic drug. Alexander Fleming Scottish bacteriologist 'I have been trying to point out that in our lives chance may have an astonishing influence and, if I may offer advice to the young laboratory worker, it would be this – never to neglect an extraordinary appearance or happening. It may be – usually is, in fact – a false alarm that leads to nothing, but it may on the other hand be the clue provided by fate to lead you to some important advance.' [Lecture at Harvard]
Fletcher, Andrew of Saltoun (1655–1716) Scottish patriot, the most outspoken critic of the Union of Scotland with England of 1707. He advocated an independent Scotland, and a republic or limited monarchy, and proposed 'limitations' to the treaty, such as annual Parliaments. After the Treaty of Union he retired to private life.
Flodden, Battle of defeat of the Scots by the English under the Earl of Surrey on 9 September 1513, on a site 5 km/3 mi southeast of Coldstream, in Northumberland, England. James IV of Scotland, declaring himself the active ally of France, crossed the border to England with an invading army of 30,000. The Scots were defeated, suffering heavy losses, and James himself was killed.
Flood, Henry (1732–1791) Irish statesman. One of Ireland's great orators, Flood entered the Irish Parliament in 1759. He allied with Henry Grattan in the hope of establishing an independent Irish parliament, and held office as vice treasurer of Ireland in 1773. In 1783 he was returned to the British House of Commons.
foederati in the late Roman Empire, trusted native tribes which defended coasts or frontiers from further incursions as Imperial authority receded. Foederati were established in Britain in the 4th century AD, for example the Damnonii of southern Scotland who seem to have entered into an alliance with the Romans in the reign of Theodosius. Gildas and Bede record that in the mid‐5th century AD Vortigern invited the Anglo‐Saxons to settle in Kent to defend the
Page268 coastline.
folly building with little or no practical purpose built as a curiosity or to catch the eye, popular in the 18th and 19th centuries. A sign of superfluous wealth, many examples take the form of ruined castles and were influenced by the Gothic revival.
food‐rent in Anglo‐Saxon England, the requirement of royal manors to provide provisions for the king's household. The system is recorded in Domesday as a form of payment in kind in the absence of any real system of economic exchange, but over the course of time these duties were transferred to nobles or commuted into a financial payment.
Foot, Dingle Mackintosh (1905–1978) British lawyer and Labour politician, solicitor general 1964–67. He was the brother of Michael Foot. Knighted 1964.
Foot, Hugh Mackintosh (1907–1990) (Baron Caradon) British Labour politician. As governor of Cyprus 1957–60, he guided the independence negotiations, and he represented the UK at the United Nations 1964–70. He was the son of Isaac Foot and brother of Michael Foot. KCMG 1951, Baron 1964.
Foot, Isaac (1880–1960) British Liberal politician. A staunch Nonconformist, he was minister of mines 1931–32. He was the father of Dingle, Hugh, and Michael Foot. Isaac Foot English Liberal politician 'Men of power have no time to read; yet men who do not read are unfit for power.' [Debts of Honour]
Foot, Michael Mackintosh (1913–) British Labour politician and writer. A leader of the left‐wing Tribune Group, he was secretary of state for employment 1974–76, Lord President of the Council and leader of the House 1976–79, and succeeded James Callaghan as Labour Party leader 1980–83.
Page269 Foot
(Image © Research Machines plc)
Page270 Former Labour Party leader Michael Foot. Born in 1913, Foot was Labour leader from 1980 to 1983. A life‐long socialist, Foot was always on the left of the Labour Party, and was also associated throughout his life with the cause of nuclear disarmament.
footpad thief or mugger, operating on foot, who robbed travellers on the highway in the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain. Thieves on horseback were termed highwaymen.
forced loans in Britain, the right of the Crown to demand money from its subjects without seeking the approval of parliament, especially in times of war. These were technically loans to be repaid and guaranteed with a receipt under the Privy Seal, unlike a benevolence, which was ostensibly a free gift. The practice appears to have started under Henry VII who did repay the money, but from the time of Henry VIII subsequent parliaments were used to cancel the debt. The loans of 1522–23 were converted by statute into gifts, and the last loan made to Elizabeth I was never repaid by her successor, James I. Opposition to the practice grew in the reign of the Stuarts, by which time it had become little better than legalized extortion. Charles I raised such a loan after parliament refused to finance his foreign policy 1626 and several prominent nobles who refused to pay were arrested. The Five Knights' Case which resulted upheld the king's power to imprison at will. The uproar over Charles' behaviour led to the Petition of Right 1628, which demanded the king halt arbitrary arrests and not raise taxes without parliamentary consent. Forced loans were declared illegal 1689.
Fordun, John of (died c. 1384) Scottish chronicler. John of Fordun is said to have been a secular and chantry priest in Aberdeen. He is reputed to have travelled on foot throughout Britain and Ireland in search of material for his Scotichronicoon or Chronica Gentis Scotorum.The five completed volumes of his chronicle are the chief authority on pre‐15th‐century Scottish history.
forest laws in England, draconian legislation, enacted mainly during the century following the Norman Conquest, which prohibited common or agricultural use of land deemed to be royal hunting grounds and placed all game in such land under royal protection. Infringement of an order protecting royal forests was severely punished, with harsh penalties including mutilation and even death. It was not even necessary for the land to be wooded and so by the early 13th century almost one third of England was subject to such laws. The laws became increasingly unpopular during the 12th century, and the Magna Carta 1215 mitigated some of the grievances. The scope of the laws was severely limited by a Charter of the Forest in 1217 which specifically limited the areas designated as forest and replaced the harsher penalties with fines. The legislation continued to be enforced up until the time of the Glorious Revolution in 1688: under Elizabeth and the first two Stuarts, technical infringements were used as a means to raise revenue. The laws were not finally abolished until 1817.
forfeiture in England, confiscation of an outlaw's property, usually divided between the
Page271 crown and the criminal's lord. In cases of treason all property went to the crown, but in most cases the criminal's land would go to his lord and his chattels to the crown. In the case of great lords, however, a portion of the confiscated lands would usually be restored to the heirs to avoid creating a potentially dangerous resentful family. Forfeiture was much used by parliament during the Civil War, and a special Commission for Forfeited Estates was set up after the Scottish rebellions of 1715 and 1745.
Forster, William Edward (1818–1886) British Liberal reformer. In Gladstone's government 1868–74 he was vice‐president of the council, and secured the passing of the Education Act 1870 and the Ballot Act 1872. He was chief secretary for Ireland 1880–82.
Fortescue, John (c. 1394–c. 1476) English lawyer. Fortescue was a favourite of Henry VI, serving three times as governor of Lincoln's Inn and, from 1442, as chief justice at King's Bench. At Edward IV's accession he was accused of high treason, but was pardoned at the defeat of the Lancastrians. His influential writings include De laudibus legum Angliae, written for the instruction of the young Edward.
Fortescue‐Brickdale, (Mary) Eleanor (1872–1945) English painter and illustrator. She designed posters for the government during World War I, after which her stained glass window designs were in great demand. Her paintings include The Forerunner (1920, Lady Lever Gallery) and The Lover's World (1905, Bristol Gallery). She was the first woman to be elected a member of the Royal Institute of Oil Painters and to be an associated member of the Royal Society of Painters in Water Colour. Fortescue‐Brickdale was born in Surrey. Her training took place at the Crystal Palace School of Art and the Royal Academy (RA) schools, London, and she began exhibiting at the Royal Academy in 1896. In 1897 she won a prize for the RA dining room design. She illustrated many books of poetry and prose, and taught at the Byam Shaw School of Art, London, before travelling extensively through Italy and the south of France.
Forty‐Five, the Jacobite rebellion of 1745, led by Prince Charles Edward Stuart. With his army of Highlanders 'Bonnie Prince Charlie' occupied Edinburgh and advanced into England as far as Derby, but then turned back. The rising was crushed by the Duke of Cumberland at Culloden in 1746.
Foss Way Roman road running from Axmouth, Devon, to Lincoln, via Ilchester, Bath, and Cirencester. The road was probably constructed c. AD 47, when it marked the northern limit of Roman expansion and together with Ermine Street was a crucial part of the Roman communication and transport system, enabling legions and goods to be transferred quickly across the country. Its name derives from the adjacent ditches, known as 'fosses'.
Fothergill, John (1712–1780) British physician. Fothergill helped to found a school for Quaker children at Ackworth and assisted Howard in his efforts at prison reform. He wrote the first authoritative account of diphtheria and published early descriptions of migraine and facial neuralgia.
Page272 Fourdrinier (Henry (1766–1854) and Sealy (died 1847)) English paper‐makers and inventors. With the assistance of Bryan Donkin, in 1801 the brothers first patented an improved design of a paper‐making machine capable of producing a continuous sheet of paper. The same basic type of machine, with further improvements, is still in use today. The liquid pulp was fed on to a wire‐mesh belt through which the water could drain away. After the resulting damp web of paper was heated, it was passed between heavy rollers to achieve a smooth finish.
Fourth Party in Britain, group of radical Tory activists within the Conservative Party 1880–85. Led by Lord Randolph Churchill, they campaigned for 'Tory democracy': reform within the Conservative Party and stronger opposition to Gladstone's second administration. A J Balfour was another prominent member of the group which applied the techniques of parliamentary disruption pioneered by Irish nationalists.
Fowler, Gerald (Gerry) (1935–1993) British politician and academic. A Labour MP 1966–79, he campaigned for equal access for all to higher education.
Fowler, John (1817–1898) British civil engineer. Fowler helped to design the London Metropolitan Railway and the Forth railway bridge. A railway consultant since 1844, he built the extension to the London Metropolitan and many other underground lines. He received a baronetcy for the Firth of Forth railway bridge.
Fox, Charles James (1749–1806) English Whig politician, son of the 1st Baron Holland. He entered Parliament in 1769 as a supporter of the court, but went over to the opposition in 1774. As secretary of state in 1782, leader of the opposition to William Pitt the Younger, and foreign secretary in 1806, he welcomed the French Revolution and brought about the abolition of the slave trade. Charles James Fox English Whig politician 'In Scotland there is no shadow even of representation. There is neither a representation of property for the counties, nor of population for the towns.' [Quoted in Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England] Charles James Fox English Whig politician 'Is peace a rash system? Is it dangerous for nations to live in amity ...? Must the bowels of Great Britain be torn out – her best blood be spilt – her treasure wasted – that you may make an experiment?' [Speech in the House of Commons February 1800, arguing against war with France]
Page273 Foxe, Richard (c. 1448–1528) English cleric, bishop of Winchester from 1501. He joined the future Henry VII while he was in exile in France; when Henry claimed the English throne, Foxe became a close adviser to the king and was appointed Lord Privy Seal 1487–1516. Foxe's political influence declined during the reign of Henry VIII, but he founded Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 1517, as a centre for teaching studia humanitatis. The foundation included a lecturer in Greek and attracted the Spanish humanist Juan Luis Vives as one of its first teachers (at the expense of Thomas Wolsey).
Framlingham town in Suffolk, England, 35 km/22 mi northeast of Ipswich; population (1991) 2,600. Framlingham was built around a spacious marketplace, and has a flintwork church.
franchise in politics, the eligibility, right, or privilege to vote at public elections, especially for the members of a legislative body, or parliament. In the UK adult citizens are eligible to vote from the age of 18, with the exclusion of peers, the insane, and criminals. The voting age for adults in the USA was lowered from 21 to 18 by the Twenty‐Sixth Amendment in 1971, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 eliminated local laws that restricted full participation by minorities. It was 1918 before all men in the UK had the right to vote, and 1928 before women were enfranchised; in New Zealand women were granted the right as early as 1893.
Francis, Clare Mary (1946–) (born Clare Norman) English yachtswoman and writer. The first woman to make a singlehanded crossing of the Atlantic (1973), she was the first woman home in the Observer Singlehanded Transatlantic Race, and holds the women's record for 1976. She was also the first woman to captain a boat in the Whitbread Round the World Race (1977–78). She now writes both fiction and non‐fiction. Francis was born in Surbiton, and educated at the Royal Ballet School and London University.
Francis, Philip (1740–1818) British politician. As a civil servant in India Francis became a bitter opponent of Warren Hastings, with whom he duelled in 1780. Defeated, Francis returned to England where he assisted Edmund Burke in the preparation of Hastings's impeachment. Francis is the probable author of the polemical letters that appeared in The Public Advertiser, 1769–72, under the pseudonym of Junius. He became an MP in 1784.
Franklin, Jane (1792–1875) (born Jane Griffin) English traveller and expedition benefactor. She accompanied her husband, the naval explorer John Franklin, on his tours through Syria, Turkey and Egypt, and financed a series of search expeditions when he disappeared while seeking the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. She was the first women to receive the Royal Geographical Society's Founder's Medal, awarded for her contribution to
Page274 the exploration of the Canadian Arctic. Franklin was born in England, and travelled widely with her father before her marriage in 1828. While in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) during her husband's appointment as governor, she campaigned vociferously for the rights of women prisoners.
Franklin, Rosalind Elsie (1920–1958) English biophysicist whose research on X‐ray diffraction of DNA crystals helped Francis Crick and James D Watson to deduce the chemical structure of DNA.
frankpledge medieval legal term for a local unit based on the manor or groups of households which all freemen were required to join. The frankpledge was expected to keep its members of good behaviour and discover transgressors, although enforcement lay with the sheriff's tourn or the local lord's court. The frankpledge was established by the Normans in the 11th century to deal with lesser crimes and church tithes.
Fraser, Bruce Austin, 1st Baron Fraser of North Cape (1888–1981) British admiral. As commander‐in‐chief of the Home Fleet in World War II, he directed the search for and subsequent sinking of the Scharnhorst December 1943. He became commander‐in‐chief of the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean August 1944 and November 1944 took command of the Pacific Fleet. He was the British representative at the signing of the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay 2 September 1945. After the war he became First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff 1948–51. KBE 1941, Baron 1946.
Frederick Louis, Prince of Wales (1707–1751) British heir apparent. Frederick was the eldest son of George II and Queen Caroline. In 1736 he married Augusta, daughter of Frederick, Duke of Saxe‐Gotha, and had several children, the eldest of whom became George III of England.
free companies in the Hundred Years' War, mercenary bodies of mixed nationality under professional captains who were employed by both the French and English. Their captains often became quite powerful and could dominate a region, but they often resorted to pillage during breaks in the fighting and caused widespread devastation. The French eventually recognized the scale of the problem and took measures to stamp out the free companies, but the English continued to employ them, causing great resentment of the English in the French countryside. The free companies were also used elsewhere, as in the Spanish civil wars of the 1360s.
freemasonry beliefs and practices of a group of linked national organizations open to men over the age of 21, united by a common code of morals and certain traditional 'secrets'. Modern freemasonry began in 18th‐century Europe. Freemasons do much charitable work, but have been criticized in recent years for their secrecy, their male exclusivity, and their alleged use of influence within and between organizations (for example, the police or local government) to further each other's interests. beliefs Freemasons believe in God, whom they call the 'Great Architect of the Universe'. history
Page275 Freemasonry is descended from a medieval guild of itinerant masons, which existed in the 14th century and by the 16th was admitting men unconnected with the building trade. The term 'freemason' may have meant a full member of the guild or one working in freestone, that is, a mason of the highest class. There were some 25 lodges in 17th‐century Scotland, of which 16 were in centres of masonic skills such as stonemasonry. The present order of Free and Accepted Masons originated with the formation in London of the first Grand Lodge, or governing body, in 1717, and during the 18th century spread from Britain to the USA, continental Europe, and elsewhere. In France and other European countries, freemasonry assumed a political and anticlerical character; it has been condemned by the papacy, and in some countries was suppressed by the state. In Italy the freemasonic lodge P2 was involved in a number of political scandals from the 1980s.
French, John Denton Pinkstone (1852–1925) (1st Earl of Ypres) British field marshal. In the second South African War 1899–1902, he relieved Kimberley and took Bloemfontein; in World War I he was commander‐in‐chief of the British Expeditionary Force in France 1914– 15; he resigned after being criticized as indecisive and became commander‐in‐chief home forces. KCB 1900, Viscount 1916, Earl 1922. John French British field marshal 'It is a solemn thought that at my signal all these fine young fellows go to their death.' [Quoted in Brett Journals and letters of Reginald, Viscount Esher]
Frere, Henry Bartle Edward (1815–1884) British administrator. During the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58 he assisted with the relief of the Punjab. In 1877 he was made governor of Cape Colony and first high commissioner of South Africa. The build‐up to the first South African War and the struggle with Cetewayo, King of Zululand, were features of his rule.
Frere, John Hookham (1769–1846) English author and diplomat. He made some excellent translations of the plays of Aristophanes, and was one of the founders of The Quarterly Review.
Frideswide, St (or St Fredeswitha) (died c. 735) Anglo‐Saxon patron saint of the city of Oxford, England. She founded and was abbess of the nunnery of St Mary's, on the site of Christ Church College. She was canonized in 1481; her feast day is 19 October. Her body lies in Christ Church cathedral, Oxford.
Frith, Mary (1584–1659) (called 'Moll Cutpurse') English highwaywoman, pickpocket, and receiver of stolen goods. Following an apprenticeship in crime with London's pickpocket gangs, dressed as a male, she pursued
Page276 a notorious and successful career in highway robbery. Her habit of cutting off money belts with a sharp knife gave rise to her nickname. A Royalist, she declared that she would rob only the king's enemies. Towards the end of her life she ran a brothel. Frith was born in London, and on her demise left instructions that she was to be buried face down, so that she would remain as preposterous in death as in life.
frost fairs medieval fairs held on rivers that had frozen over. Before bridges with many arches speeded up the flow of water, many English rivers, especially the Thames, were prone to freezing solid for days at a time in the winter and townspeople would take advantage by erecting stalls and holding entertainments on the water.
Froude, James Anthony (1818–1894) English historian whose History of England from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada in 12 volumes (1856–70) was a classic Victorian work. He was influenced by the Oxford Movement in the Church of England, in which his brother, Richard Hurrell Froude (1803–1836), collaborated with Cardinal Newman. James Froude English historian 'Carlyle has been at issue with all the tendencies of his age. Like a John the Baptist, he has stood alone preaching repentance in a world which is to him a wilderness.' [On Thomas Carlyle, in The Oxford Counter‐Reformation] James Froude English historian 'His fame blazed like a straw bonfire, and has left behind it scarce a shovelful of ashes.' [On Daniel O'Connell, in Short Studies] James Froude English historian 'Truth only smells sweet forever, and illusions, however innocent, are deadly as the canker‐worm.' [J A Froude Short Studies on Great Subjects'Calvinism']
Page277 Fry, Elizabeth (1780–1845) (born Elizabeth Gurney) English Quaker philanthropist. From 1813 she began to visit and teach the women in Newgate Prison in London who lived with their children in terrible conditions. She formed an association for the improvement of conditions for female prisoners in 1817, and worked with her brother, Joseph Gurney (1788–1847), on an 1819 report on prison reform. She was a pioneer for higher nursing standards and the education of working women.
Fyfe, David Maxwell (1st Earl of Kilmuir) Scottish lawyer and Conservative politician; see Kilmuir.
G Gabain, Ethel Leontine (1883–1950) English artist and printmaker. A remarkable draughtsperson, she became known for her female portraiture, such as Flora Robson in the role of Lady Audley (Manchester City Art Gallery), which won the 1933 De Laszlo Silver Medal. In 1940 she was appointed an official war artist, painting evacuees before turning to the depiction of women in traditionally male occupations. Gabain was born in Le Havre, France, and studied at the Slade School of Art and the Central School of Arts and Crafts in London, and in Paris. She was elected to the membership of both the Royal Society of British Artists and the Royal Institute of Oil Painters.
Gaelic League Irish organization founded in 1893 to promote the use of the Irish language. Established by a Protestant academic, Douglas Hyde, a Catholic intellectual, Eoin MacNeill, and a Catholic priest, Fr Eugene O'Growney of Maynooth, the Gaelic League successfully halted the decline in the use of Irish by organizing language classes and social events, and establishing the language as a subject taught widely in national schools. The movement was initially confined to an urban‐based bourgeois intellectual elite but grew in popularity in the early 20th century to form part of what became known as the cultural nationalist movement. Although ostensibly non‐political, the Gaelic League sought to promote a distinctive Irish national identity based on the revival of Gaelic culture. In both practical and ideological respects, it provided important support to the militant nationalists who would later organize the Easter Rising in 1916 and the Irish Civil War (1922–23).
Gage, Thomas (1721–1787) English general, son of the 1st Viscount Gage. He served in the Seven Years' War and in Edward Braddock's ill‐ fated American expedition to fight against the French in 1755. In 1760 he was appointed military governor in Montréal, and in 1763 commander‐in‐chief of the British forces in America. As governor of Massachusetts he precipitated the revolution by his ill‐timed severity, and, after the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775 he was recalled to England.
Gaitskell, Hugh (Todd Naylor) (1906–1963) British Labour Party leader from 1955. In 1950 he became minister of economic affairs, and then chancellor of the Exchequer until October 1951. As party leader, he tried to reconcile internal differences on nationalization and disarmament. Born in London, he was educated at Winchester public school and at Oxford, and later lectured on political economics at
Page278 London University. He spent most of World War II working at the Ministry of Economic Warfare, and in 1945 became Labour member of Parliament for Leeds South, retaining this seat until his death. In 1955 he defeated Aneurin Bevan for the succession to Clement Attlee as Labour leader, and he was re‐elected party leader in 1960. He died suddenly in office in 1963. Hugh Gaitskell British Labour politician 'All terrorists, at the invitation of the Government, end up with drinks at the Dorchester.' [Guardian 23 August 1977] Hugh Gaitskell British Labour politician 'I became a Socialist because I hated poverty and squalor.' [Labour Party Conference 1955] Hugh Gaitskell British Labour politician 'Surely the right course is to test the Russians, not the bomb.' [The Observer 1957]
Gale, Humphrey Middleton (1890–1971) British general. After serving in World War I, he remained in the Army and at the outbreak of World War II went to France with the British Expeditionary Force 1939. He then served in a variety of administrative posts, mainly under General Eisenhower, before returning to the UK 1944 to take over the administration of Operation Overlord, the D‐Day landings in Normandy. He then returned to his post as Eisenhower's right‐hand man until the end of the war in Europe. KBE 1943.
Gale, Richard Nelson (1896–1981) British general. In World War II, he raised and trained the 1st Parachute Brigade and during the D‐Day landings led the small force which dropped ahead of the main invasion to capture the Orne bridges flanking the British beachhead. After the war he commanded the British Army of the Rhine and later became Chief of the General Staff.
Page279 game laws in Britain, legislation from 1671 to 1831 restricting the taking of game to those of high social status. 'Game' itself was defined by the Games Act 1831 as hares, pheasants, partridges, grouse, heath or moor game, black game (the grouse Lyrurus tetrix) and bustards, though these last were deleted by the Protection of Birds Act (1954). It is necessary to have a game licence to take or pursue game.
Gang of Four in the UK, term referring to four members of the Labour Party who in 1981 resigned to form the Social Democratic Party: Roy Jenkins, David Owen, Shirley Williams, and William Rodgers.
Garda Síochána (plural Gardaí) police force of the Irish Free State and later the Republic of Ireland, established in 1922. Despite its foundation in the troubled years of the Irish Civil War (1922–23), the Garda was from the beginning and remains a largely unarmed force. Expanding from an initial 2,000 officers, the force stood at over 11,000 (men and women) in 1999. Though generally perceived to be independent of serious political influence, some of its commissioners, notably Eoin O'Duffy in 1933 and Edmund Garvey in 1977, were forced to resign as a result of open conflict with the government of the day. Since 1970 the Garda's tasks have been greatly expanded as a result of the Northern Ireland 'Troubles' and increased illegal activities on the border; 14 officers have been killed in the line of duty since 1969. However, the civil character of the force has been left largely unchanged by the Ulster crisis; political, anti‐terrorist, and intelligence activities have been allocated to the Special Branch, a detective unit established for purposes of internal security in 1925. Though the Garda continues to enjoy the respect and support of the public, increased industrial action, such as the 'Blue Flu' (a one day stoppage claiming sick‐leave) in 1999, has given rise to some criticism.
Gardiner, Stephen (c. 1493–1555) English priest and politician. After being secretary to Cardinal Wolsey, he became bishop of Winchester in 1531. An opponent of Protestantism, he was imprisoned under Edward VI, and as Lord Chancellor (1553–55) under Queen Mary he tried to restore Roman Catholicism.
Garrod, Dorothy Annie Elizabeth (1892–1968) English archaeologist. She directed expeditions to Kurdistan in 1928 and Palestine 1929–34, and took part in excavations in the Lebanon 1958–64. An expert on the Palaeolithic or Old Stone Age, in 1939 she became the first woman to hold a professorial chair at Cambridge. Garrod was born in London, and studied at Newnham College, Cambridge. Her father was the English physician Archibald Garrod.
Gascoigne, William (c. 1350–1419) English lawyer. In 1397 he became one of the King's serjeants and was appointed attorney to the banished Duke of Hereford, who was later to become Henry IV. He was made chief justice of the King's Bench in 1400, and in 1403 was commissioned to raise forces against the insurgent Earl of
Page280 Northumberland.
gas lighting the lighting of private or public premises by gas derived from coal by distillation.
Gauden, John (1605–1662) English writer and bishop. He became bishop of Exeter in 1660 and bishop of Worcester in 1662. He claimed authorship of the Eikon Basilike, but the actual identity of the writer remains uncertain.
gavelkind in Britain, system of land tenure found only in Kent. The tenant paid rent to the lord instead of carrying out services for him, as elsewhere. It came into force in Anglo‐Saxon times and was only formally abolished 1926. The term comes from Old English gafol, 'tribute' and gecynd, 'kind'.
Gaveston, Piers (died 1312) Gascon noble and favourite of Edward II in England. Gaveston was made earl of Cornwall 1307 and when Edward went to France 1308, he left Gaveston as Keeper of the Realm. He aroused much jealousy among English barons who accused him of monopolizing royal patronage and they forced Edward to exile him 1306–07 and 1308–09. He was attacked in the ordinances of 1311 and the following year he was seized by Edward's opponents and summarily executed on the orders of Thomas of Leicester, the king's cousin and bitter enemy.
Geddes, Jenny (lived 17th century AD) Scottish vegetable seller who, on 23 July 1637, reputedly threw her stool at the head of Archbishop William Laud's dean in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, as he was going to read the collect for the day, in protest at the imposition on Scotland of Laud's Prayer Book. Rioting followed.
General Belgrano Argentine battle cruiser torpedoed and sunk on 2 May 1982 by the British nuclear‐powered submarine Conqueror during the Falklands War. At the time of the attack it was sailing away from the Falklands. The General Belgrano was Argentina's second‐largest warship, weighing 13,645 tonnes and armed with Exocet missiles, Seacat anti‐aircraft missiles, and Lynx helicopters. Out of the ship's company of over 1,000, 368 were killed. The Belgrano had been purchased from the US Navy in 1951, having survived the 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
general strike refusal to work by employees in several key industries, with the intention of paralysing the economic life of a country. In British history, the General Strike was a nationwide strike called by the Trade Union Congress (TUC) on 3 May 1926 in support of striking miners. Elsewhere, the general strike was used as a political weapon by anarchists and others, especially in Spain and Italy. The immediate cause of the 1926 general strike was the report of a royal commission on the coal‐mining industry (Samuel Report (1926)) which, among other things, recommended a cut in wages. The mine‐owners wanted longer hours as well as
Page281 lower wages. The miners' union, under the leadership of A J Cook, resisted with the slogan 'Not a penny off the pay, not a minute on the day'. A coal strike started in early May 1926 and the miners asked the TUC to bring all major industries out on strike in support of the action; eventually it included more than 2 million workers. The Conservative government under Stanley Baldwin used troops, volunteers, and special constables to maintain food supplies and essential services, and had a monopoly on the information services, including BBC radio. After nine days the TUC ended the general strike, leaving the miners – who felt betrayed by the TUC – to remain on strike, unsuccessfully, until November 1926. The Trades Disputes Act of 1927 made general strikes illegal. general strike
(Image © Billie Love)
Supporters of Britain's General Strike of May 1926, picketing a meat delivery convoy during its passage from the docks to Smithfield market in London. The strike was called by the Trades Union Congress in response to a national lockout of coal‐miners, but the government was able to keep most services running and the TUC capitulated after nine days.
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general warrants In England, open writs for the arrest of unspecified persons suspected of committing a named offence. The warrants were issued by the Star Chamber and were mainly used under Charles II. They were abolished after their misuse against John Wilkes, who criticized King George III in his journal the North Briton April 1763. He and 49 others associated with the publication were arrested under general warrants against seditious libel and successfully challenged the legality of the procedure in the courts. Parliament concurred and they were abolished 1765, although they can still be issued to prevent sedition in the armed forces under the terms of an act of 1934.
George six kings of Great Britain:
George I (1660–1727) King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1714. He was the son of the first elector of Hannover, Ernest Augustus (1629– 1698), and his wife Sophia, and a great‐grandson of James I. He succeeded to the electorate in 1698, and became king on the death of Queen Anne. He attached himself to the Whigs, and spent most of his reign in Hannover, never having learned English. George I King of Great Britain 'I hate all Boets and Bainters.' [Quoted in Campbell Lives of the Chief Justices ch. 30]
George II (1683–1760) King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1727, when he succeeded his father, George I. He was accused, with his minister John Carteret, of favouring Hannover at the expense of Britain's interest in the War of the Austrian Succession; his victory at Dettingen in 1743 was the last battle to be commanded by a British king. He married Caroline of Anspach in 1705, and was succeeded by his grandson, George III. Under Queen Caroline's influence, Robert Walpole retained his ministry, begun during the reign of George I, and until his resignation in 1742, managed to keep Britain at peace. The Jacobite rebellion of 1745 was successfully put down by George's favourite son, William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland. George II King of Great Britain 'Oh! he is mad, is he? Then I wish he would bite some other of my generals.' [Reply to a complaint that General James Wolfe was a madman]
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George II English monarch 'I cannot read him, he is such a bombastic fellow.' [On William Shakespeare. Attributed] George II King of Great Britain 'Mad is he? Then I wish he would bite some of my other generals.' [On Wolfe, quoted in Francis Thackeray History of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham 1827 vol. i ch. 15]
George III (1738–1820) King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1760, when he succeeded his grandfather George II. His rule was marked by intransigence resulting in the loss of the American colonies, for which he shared the blame with his chief minister Lord North, and the emancipation of Catholics in England. Possibly suffering from porphyria, he was believed to be insane. His condition deteriorated dramatically after 1811. He was succeeded by his son George IV.
Page284 George III
(Image © Billie Love)
Page285 A portrait of King George III in 1760, the year of his accession. He became heir to the British throne on the death of his father in 1751, and succeeded his grandfather George II. George III was the third Hanoverian monarch and the first to be born in England and use English as his first language. George III
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Caricature by James Gillray depicting George III as the king of Brobdignag scrutinizing Napoleon as Gulliver, based on a scene in Swift's Gulliver's Travels. This is an unusually favourable portrayal of the king.
Page286 George III King of Great Britain and Ireland 'I desire what is good; therefore, everyone who does not agree with me is a traitor.' [Sir John Fortescue (ed) The Correspondence of George III]
George IV (1762–1830) King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1820, when he succeeded his father George III, for whom he had been regent during the king's period of insanity 1811–20. In 1785 he secretly married a Catholic widow, Maria Fitzherbert, but in 1795 also married Princess Caroline of Brunswick, in return for payment of his debts. He was a patron of the arts. His prestige was undermined by his treatment of Caroline (they separated in 1796), his dissipation, and his extravagance. He was succeeded by his brother, the duke of Clarence, who became William IV. Leigh Hunt English poet and essayist 'This delightful, blissful, wise, pleasurable, honourable, virtuous, true and immortal Prince was a violator of his word, a libertine over head and ears in debt and disgrace ... the companion of gamblers and demireps, a man who has just closed half a century without one single claim on the gratitude of his country or the respect of posterity.' [Referring to the Prince Regent in The Examiner 1812]
George V (1865–1936) King of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 1910, when he succeeded his father Edward VII. He was the second son, and became heir in 1892 on the death of his elder brother Albert, Duke of Clarence. In 1893, he married Princess Victoria Mary of Teck (Queen Mary), formerly engaged to his brother. During World War I he made several visits to the front. In 1917, he abandoned all German titles for himself and his family. The name of the royal house was changed from Saxe‐Coburg‐Gotha to Windsor. His mother was Princess Alexandra of Denmark, sister of Empress Marie of Russia. George V King of Great Britain 'I can't understand it. I'm really quite an ordinary sort of chap.' [Attributed remark at Jubilee celebrations 1935]
Page287 George V British monarch 'After I am dead, the boy will ruin himself in twelve months.' [Of his son Edward VIII, later Duke of Windsor. Quoted in K Middlemas and J Barnes, Baldwin] George V King of Great Britain 'His Majesty does not know what the Band has just played, but it is never to be played again.' [After a band performed a selection from Elektra, quoted in Reid Thomas Beecham 1961] George V King of Great Britain 'I have many times asked myself whether there can be more potent advocates of peace upon the earth through the years to come than this massed multitude of silent witnesses to the desolation of war.' [Referring to the mass war graves in Flanders 1922, quoted in Gavin Stamp Silent Cities] Harold Nicholson British diplomat and writer 'For seventeen years he did nothing at all but kill animals and stick in stamps.' [Of the reign of King George V, Diary, August 1949]
George VI (1895–1952) King of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 1936, when he succeeded after the abdication of his brother Edward VIII, who had succeeded their father George V. Created Duke of York in 1920, he married in 1923 Lady Elizabeth Bowes‐Lyon (1900–), and their children are Elizabeth II and Princess Margaret. During World War II, he visited the Normandy and Italian battlefields. George VI King of Great Britain 'We're not a family; we're a firm.'
Page288 [Remark]
Geraldine term applied to the Anglo‐Irish Fitzgerald dynasty in the medieval and early modern eras.
Gerald of Wales English name of Giraldus Cambrensis, medieval Welsh bishop and historian.
Germanus of Auxerre, St (c. 378–448) French cleric. He became an ascetic when he was elected bishop of Auxerre in 418. As bishop, he visited Britain in 430 and 447 to campaign against the teaching of the theologian Pelagius.
gibbeting the practice of exhibiting the bodies of executed felons in chains at public crossroads to deter others. Highwaymen, smugglers and rioters were most often punished in this way. The practice was at its height in the 17th century, but gibbets ceased to be used towards the end of the 18th century and gibbeting was formally abolished 1834.
Gibbon, Edward (1737–1794) English historian. He wrote one major work, arranged in three parts, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776–88), a continuous narrative from the 2nd century AD to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. He began work on it while in Rome in 1764. Although immediately successful, he was compelled to reply to attacks on his account of the early development of Christianity by a 'Vindication' in 1779. His Autobiography, pieced together from fragments, appeared in 1796. Edward Gibbon English historian '[Antoninus Pius'] reign is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few materials for history; which is, indeed, little more than the register of the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind.' [Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ch. 3] Edward Gibbon English historian 'All taxes must, at last, fall upon agriculture.' [Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ch. 8]
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Edward Gibbon English historian 'Corruption, the most infallible symptom of constitutional liberty.' [Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 21] Edward Gibbon English historian 'Dr. – well remembered that he had a salary to receive, and only forgot that he had a duty to perform.' [Memoirs of My Life] Edward Gibbon English historian 'I sighed as a lover, I obeyed as a son.' [Memoirs of My Life] Edward Gibbon English historian 'I was never less alone than when by myself.' [Memoirs of My Life] Edward Gibbon English historian 'It was at Rome, on the 15th of October, 1764, as I sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the barefooted friars were singing vespers in the Temple of Jupiter, that the idea of writing the decline and fall of the city first started to my mind.' [Memoirs of My Life]
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Edward Gibbon English historian 'My early and invincible love of reading, which I would not exchange for the treasures of India.' [Memoirs of My Life] Edward Gibbon English historian 'Their dull and deep potations excused the brisk intemperance of youth.' [Memoirs of My Life]
Gibraltar, siege of during the American Revolution, an unsuccessful Franco–Spanish blockade of the British‐held fortress of Gibraltar June 1779–February 1783. The siege inflicted great hardship: few supply ships were able to run the blockade and the residents came close to starvation several times.
Gibson, Guy Penrose (1918–1944) English bomber pilot of World War II. He became famous as leader of the 'dambuster raids' 16–17 May 1943; he formed 617 squadron specifically to bomb the Ruhr Dams, and as wing commander led the raid personally, dropping the first bomb on the Mohne Dam. He was awarded the Victoria Cross for his leadership in this action.
Gilbert's Act statute passed in 1762 in Britain allowing workhouse inmates to find outside work. The Workhouse Act of 1722 empowered parishes or groups of parishes to build workhouses, and by the mid‐18th century there were about 2,000 workhouses in England. The inmates were generally confined to the limits of the workhouse. Gilbert's Act replaced the system of parish overseers with a more professional system of elected guardians. It allowed parishes to amalgamate into poor law unions to share costs, and it decreed that the able‐bodied poor should be given outdoor relief, indoor relief being provided for those physically unable to work.
Gillies, Sir Harold Delf (1882–1960) New Zealand‐born British surgeon who won international acclaim as a pioneer in plastic surgery. His experience in the Royal Army Medical Corps in the World War I made him realize the urgent need for specialized surgical treatment for facial wounds. He returned to England from France and opened a special unit at Aldershot and later (1917) at Queen's Hospital, Sidcup. By the end of the war he had treated some 11,000 wounded.
Page291 Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 1146–c. 1220) (Welsh Gerallt Gymro) Welsh historian, born in Pembrokeshire. He studied in Paris, took holy orders in about 1172, and soon afterwards became archdeacon of Brecknock. In 1184 he accompanied Prince John to Ireland. He was elected bishop of St Davids in 1198, but failed to gain possession of his see. He wrote a history of the conquest of Ireland by Henry II. His books include Expugnatio Hibernica (The Conquest of Ireland); Topographia Hibernica (The Topography of Ireland), a descriptive account of the island; Itinerarium Cambriae (Journey through Wales) (1191); and De Rebus a se Gestis: Gemma Ecclesiastica (Concerning Things Done by Himself: the Jewel of the Church), an autobiography. Giraldus Cambrensis Welsh chronicler and ecclesiastic 'The sun has set; no night has followed.' [Referring (1189) to the succession of Richard I to the English throne on the death of Henry II]
Gladstone, William Ewart (1809–1898) British Liberal politician, four times prime minister. He entered Parliament as a Tory in 1833 and held ministerial office, but left the party in 1846 and after 1859 identified himself with the Liberals. He was chancellor of the Exchequer 1852–55 and 1859–66, and prime minister 1868–74, 1880–85, 1886, and 1892–94. He introduced elementary education in 1870 and vote by secret ballot in 1872 and many reforms in Ireland, although he failed in his efforts to get a Home Rule Bill passed.
Page292 Gladstone
(Image © Billie Love)
Page293 Engraving by William Holl of the Liberal prime minister William Gladstone, after a photograph by John Jabez Edwin Mayall in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Gladstone dominated British politics for much of the second half of the 19th century, an advocate of free trade and domestic reform and a campaigner for Home Rule for Ireland. His rivalry with his Conservative opponent Benjamin Disraeli is often recalled as a golden age of parliament. William Gladstone British Liberal prime minister 'All the world over, I will back the masses against the classes.' [Speech in Liverpool, 28 June 1886] W C and R J Sellar and Yeatman English writers 'Gladstone ... spent his declining years trying to guess the answer to the Irish Question; unfortunately whenever he was getting warm, the Irish secretly changed the Question.' [1066 and All That ch. 57]
Glanvill, Ranulf de (died 1190) English lawyer whose chief work was Tractatus de Legibus et Consuetudinibus Angliae c. 1181. In 14 books, it is valuable as the earliest treatise on the laws of England. Glanvill was Chief Justiciar of England, during the reign of Henry II. He was born in Suffolk, near Saxmundham, and, in about 1175, he was successful over the Scottish troops under William the Lion. He eventually joined the Crusaders under Richard I, and died at Acre.
Glastonbury market town in Somerset, southwest England, on the River Brue, 8 km/5 mi southwest of Wells; population (1996 est) 8,100. Light industries include injection moulding, and the production of footwear and leather goods. Tourism and warehousing are also important. Glastonbury Tor, a hill crowned by a ruined 14th‐century church tower, rises to 159 m/522 ft. Glastonbury lake village, occupied from around 150 BC to AD 50, lies 5 km/3 mi to the northwest. Glastonbury Abbey, originally established in the 4th or 5th century, is thought to be on the site of the earliest Christian foundation in England, traditionally established by St Joseph of Arimathaea in about AD 63. Glastonbury has been associated with Avalon, said in Celtic mythology to have been the burial place of the legendary King Arthur and Queen Guinevere. The Glastonbury Festival is a pop music festival held outside the town most Junes; in 1998 it received the Best Musical Event award in the NME (New Musical Express) Awards.
Page294 Glastonbury
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The Chalice Well, at Glastonbury in Somerset, is among the oldest holy wells in continuous use in the UK. According to archaeological research, the spring was almost certainly visited by prehistoric tribes.
Page295 Glastonbury
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Page296 The ruins of Glastonbury Abbey, in Somerset, date from 1184. Legend says that Joseph of Arimathaea built the first church on this site, but the first archaeological evidence is for an abbey built by the Saxons in around 708. This was destroyed by fire in 1184 and rebuilt, but the buildings fell into disrepair as a result of the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and are now ruined.
glebe in Britain, landed endowment of a parish church, designed to support the priest. It later became necessary to supplement this with taxation.
Glencoe, Massacre of slaughter in Glencoe, Scotland, of members of the MacDonald clan in 1692 by the Campbells, their hereditary enemies in league with government forces; the chief and 37 MacDonalds perished. William III had offered a free pardon for all Highland chiefs who took an oath of allegiance before 1 January 1692. In error, the clan MacDonald of Glencoe went to Fort William, where there was only a military governor, and had to go 96 km/60 mi over the mountains to Inverary, where they took the oath, too late, on 6 January 1692.
Glendower, Owen (c. 1350–1416) (also known as Owain Glyndwr) Welsh nationalist leader. He led a rebellion against Henry IV of England, taking the title 'Prince of Wales' in 1400, and successfully led the Welsh defence against English invasions in 1400–02, though Wales was reconquered by the English in 1405–13. He gained control of most of the country and established an independent Welsh parliament, but from 1405 onwards suffered repeated defeats at the hands of Prince Henry, later Henry V. Glendower allied himself with English rebels, including the Percies, and also the French, but his allies were defeated. He went into hiding and disappeared from history.
Glorious Revolution in British history, the events surrounding the removal of James II from the throne and his replacement in 1689 by his daughter Mary and William of Orange as joint sovereigns (Mary II and William III), bound by the Bill of Rights. events James II had become increasingly unpopular on account of his unconstitutional behaviour and Catholicism. In June 1688 seven prominent politicians invited the Protestant William to invade. In September 1688 William issued a Declaration of Reasons, supporting the 'warming pan' theory that James's son was an impostor, and promising to defend the Protestant faith. In November his fleet set sail for England, landing at Torbay on 5 November. James's army and navy deserted him, and he lost his nerve and fled to France. The Glorious Revolution was bloodless in England, but involved fierce wars in both Scotland and Ireland (see Scotland: history 1603 to 1746, the Revolution of 1688 and Ireland:
Page297 history 1603 to 1782, the Glorious Revolution). William and Mary ascended the throne, but the Bill of Rights limited the power of the crown, established the power of Parliament, and established a constitutional monarchy in England. William was succeeded by Anne, second daughter of James II, and the Act of Settlement of 1701 ensured future Protestant succession to the throne. The Emergence of a Great Power: England after 1688 England after 1688 William III's seizure of power in England was opposed in both Scotland and Ireland, where supporters of James II (known as 'Jacobites' from Jacobus, Latin for James) fought a bitter war before finally being defeated in 1691. The Jacobites were to stage major risings in 1715 and 1745, but they were both defeated. The Glorious Revolution therefore led to English domination of the British Isles, albeit a domination supported by and identified with important sections of the Irish and Scottish population: Irish Anglicans and Scottish Presbyterians. This process led to the Union of 1707 of England and Scotland: the Scottish Parliament was abolished and Scotland was thereafter represented in the Westminster Parliament. The Scottish Privy Council was also abolished 1708. Protestantism, war with France, and the benefits of empire helped to create a British consciousness alongside the still strong senses of English, Scottish, Irish, and Welsh identity. Parliamentary union with Ireland followed in 1800–01. wars with France William III led England into war with Louis XIV of France, the War of the League of Augsburg (or Nine Years' War) of 1689–97, fought to stop France overrunning the Low Countries. Conflict resumed with the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14) in which John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, heavily defeated the French in a number of battles, particularly Blenheim 1704. The Royal Navy also emerged during this period as the leading European navy. Naval strength was crucial in seeing off the French threat during the War of the Austrian Succession (Britain's involvement lasted 1743–48) and the Seven Years' War 1756–63. The latter war ended with the Thirteen Colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America, and the British possessions in India, secure; with Canada, Florida, and many Caribbean islands acquired; and with Britain as the leading maritime power in the world, thus fulfilling what James Thomson had seen as the national destiny in his song Rule Britannia 1740: 'Rule, Britannia, rule the waves; Britons never will be slaves.' This was the achievement of the ministry of William Pitt the Elder and the Duke of Newcastle (1757–62), and of a number of able military leaders, including Wolfe, Clive, Hawke, and Boscawen. Robert Clive's victory at Plassey in 1757, over the vastly more numerous forces of the Indian Prince, Suraja Dowla, laid the basis for the virtual control of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa by the East India Company (French forces in India were finally defeated in 1760–61, and Britain emerged as the leading European power in the subcontinent). A French attempt to invade Britain on behalf of the Jacobites was crushed by British naval victories at Lagos and Quiberon Bay in 1759. That year, British troops also defeated the French at Minden in Germany, while James Wolfe's troops scaled the Heights of Abraham near Québec to capture France's most important possession in Canada. The bell ringers at York Minster were paid four times between 21 August and 22 October that year for celebrating triumphs. In 1762 British forces campaigned round the globe. They helped the Portuguese resist a Spanish invasion, fought the French in
Page298 Germany, and captured Martinique from France and Havana and Manila from Spain, an extraordinary testimony to the global reach of British power, particularly naval power, and the strength of the British state. the growth of empire British control of the eastern seaboard of North America north of Florida had been expanded and consolidated with the gain of New York from the Dutch in 1664, the French recognition of Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay as British in 1713, and the foundation of colonies including Maryland 1634, Pennsylvania 1681, Carolina 1663 and Georgia 1732. Possibly 200,000 people emigrated from the British Isles to North America during the 17th century, far outnumbering the French settlers in Canada and Louisiana, and the settlements founded included Charleston 1672, Philadelphia 1682, Baltimore 1729, and Savannah 1733. The English also made a major impact in their West Indian islands and developed there a sugar economy based on slave labour brought from West Africa, where British settlements included Accra (settled 1672). The East India Company, chartered in 1600, was the basis of British commercial activity, and later political power, in the Indian Ocean. Bombay (now known as Mumbai) was gained in 1661, followed by Calcutta (now known as Kolkata) in 1698. Trade outside Europe became increasingly important to the British economy, and played a major role in the growth of such ports as Bristol, Glasgow, Liverpool, and Whitehaven. The mercantile marine grew from 280,000 tonnes in 1695 to 609,000 in 1760. By 1763 Britain was the leading maritime state in the world, unified at home and secure in the possession of a large trade‐based empire. With France and Spain both vanquished, Britain's position as the world's leading power seemed beyond serious challenge. Gilbert Burnet English historian and bishop 'A great king, with strong armies and mighty fleets, a great treasure and powerful allies, fell all at once, and his whole strength, like a spider's web, was ... irrecoverably lost.' [History of His Own Times 1724]
Gloucester Cathedral cathedral in Gloucester, Gloucestershire, England. This great abbey church did not become a cathedral until 1541, four decades after its completion. The first abbey was founded in 681, and assumed Benedictine rule in 1022. Its post‐Conquest rebuilding began in 1089 (completed around 1120), and of this period the nave, crypt and much of the structure survive. The nave has an Early English stone vault, completed in 1242. However, the cathedral's most glorious features are those in the Perpendicular style.
Goderich, 1st Viscount Goderich title of British prime minister Frederick Robinson, 1st Earl of Ripon.
Godiva, or Godgifu, Lady (c. 1040–1080) Wife of Leofric, Earl of Mercia (died
Page299 1057). Legend has it that her husband promised to reduce the heavy taxes on the people of Coventry if she rode naked through the streets at noon. The grateful citizens remained indoors as she did so, but 'Peeping Tom' bored a hole in his shutters and was struck blind.
Godolphin, Sidney (1645–1712) (1st Earl of Godolphin) English politician who was an unscrupulous intriguer, but a capable administrator and whose masterly control over the finances did much to secure the success of the Duke of Marlborough's continental campaigns. He was created an earl in 1706.
Godwin Earl of Wessex from 1020. He secured the succession to the throne in 1042 of Edward the Confessor, to whom he married his daughter Edith, and whose chief minister he became. King Harold II was his son.
Golden Jubilee celebrations held throughout Britain and the Empire in 1887 to mark the 50th year of Queen Victoria's rule. Colonial leaders gathered in London to attend the celebrations and this made possible the first Imperial Conference. A similar celebration, the Diamond Jubilee, was held on the 60th anniversary.
gold penny mainly in the 13th and 14th centuries, a penny minted in gold instead of the more usual silver of the time, designed for prestige rather than everyday commercial use. They were occasionally produced in Anglo‐Saxon times, including the reign of Edward the Confessor, but most were circulated between 1257 and 1270, although their face value was as high as 2 shillings by 1265. Edward III also minted gold coins, largely to increase his prestige in France
goldsmith old commercial term for a dealer in bullion and foreign currency as opposed to one who works gold as an artisan. Goldsmiths existed from at least the 12th century and were granted a charter 1394. Their establishments were the precursors of modern banks, and by the 17th century their receipts or bonds were negotiable. Their influence was greatly diminished by the creation of the Bank of England, designed to halt the government's dependence on private credit.
Gonne, Maud (1865–1953) (married name Maud MacBride) Irish nationalist and actor, a founder‐member of Sinn Fein. A celebrated society beauty, she became acquainted with the poet W B Yeats in the 1890s through her support for Irish nationalism. Gonne refused Yeats's offer of marriage, and in 1903 married Major John MacBride, who had fought against the British in the Boer War and was ultimately executed for his part in the Easter Rising in 1916. Their son Seán MacBride was foreign minister of the Irish Republic from 1948–51 and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize. Gonne's father was an Irish colonel and her mother was English. She made her acting debut in St Petersburg, Russia, and later rose to prominence on the stage in her native country, working at the new Abbey Theatre founded by Yeats. After taking up the republican cause, she established the nationalist women's organization, the 'Daughters of Ireland', and edited a nationalist newspaper, L'Irlande libre, in Paris.
Page300 Gooch, George Peabody (1873–1968) British historian who was an authority in the diplomatic history and foreign policy of the modern period, and his extensive researches made his History of Modern Europe 1878–1919, 1923, one of the best books on the period.
Good Friday Agreement multiparty settlement proposed on 10 April 1998 in the Northern Ireland peace process. Ann Finlay A Protestant whose Roman Catholic husband was murdered by a 'Loyalist' gunman in 1975 'They have let the murderers win.' [On the triumphal release of the first terrorist prisoners from the Maze, in accordance with the Good Friday agreement; Daily Telegraph, 12 September 1998]
Goodman, Arnold Abraham, Baron Goodman (1913–1995) English lawyer and political adviser. Once described as the most powerful man in Britain, he was adviser to three prime ministers: Harold Wilson, Edward Heath, and John Major. He had the unique distinction of having been made a peer by a Labour prime minister and a Companion of Honour by a Conservative one.
Good Parliament In England, Parliament of April–July 1376 which attacked Edward III's government for excessive expenditure and the lack of success in the Hundred Years' War. The king was forced to change his ministers and to dismiss his mistress, Alice Perrers. The Commons denounced the corruption of many of the government's officials, including the chamberlain Lord Latimer, and indicted them before the House of Lords, the first instance of impeachment. It also created the office of Speaker by electing Sir Peter de la Mare to put the case of the Commons to parliament as whole. Most of its acts were repealed or annulled the following year.
Gordon, Charles George (1833–1885) British general sent to Khartoum in the Sudan in 1884 to rescue English garrisons that were under attack by the Mahdi, Muhammad Ahmed; he was himself besieged for ten months by the Mahdi's army. A relief expedition arrived on 28 January 1885 to find that Khartoum had been captured and Gordon killed two days before. Gordon served in the Crimean War and in China 1864, where he earned his nickname 'Chinese Gordon' in ending the Taiping Rebellion. In 1874 he was employed by the Khedive of Egypt to open the country and from 1877 to 1880 was British governor of the Sudan.
Page301 Lord Cromer English colonial administrator 'A man who habitually consults the Prophet Isaiah when he is in a difficulty is not apt to obey the orders of any one.' [On Charles Gordon, in a letter to Lord Granville, 1884] Charles Gordon British general 'Better a ball in the brain than to flicker out unheeded.' [Diary November 1884] Charles Gordon British general 'Go tell the people of Khartoum that Gordon fears nothing, for God has created him without fear.' [Address to the people of Khartoum 25 December 1884] Charles Gordon British general 'I would sooner live like a Dervish with the Mahdi, than go out to dinner every night in London.' ['Khartoum Journal' 1883]
Gordon, Lord George (1751–1793) British anti‐Catholic activist. He organized the so‐called Gordon Riots of 1780, a protest against removal of penalties imposed on Roman Catholics in the Catholic Relief Act of 1778; he was acquitted on a treason charge. Gordon and the 'No Popery' riots figure in Charles Dickens's novel Barnaby Rudge 1841.
Gordon, Noele (1922–1985) English actor. Following a successful career on the London stage, most notably in Diamond Lil (1948) and Brigadoon (1949–51), she turned to television, hosting the series Lunch Box (1955) and Fancy That (1956), and becoming a household name as a motel owner in the
Page302 long‐running soap‐opera Crossroads (1964–81). Dismissed from the series, she returned to the stage and appeared in the barnstorming musicals Gypsy (1981), Call Me Madam (1982–83), and No, No Nanette (1983).
Goring, George Goring, Lord (1608–1657) English Royalist commander who was appointed governor of Portsmouth in 1639, and was concerned in the Army Plot, which he betrayed to Parliament. Nevertheless, when the Civil War broke out he declared for the King and held Portsmouth for him for a time. He took part in the battle of Marston Moor, and later commanded Royalist forces in the west, where the plundering of his soldiers made him notorious. He was defeated after Naseby at Langport, and fled to France.
Gorst, J(ohn) E(ldon) (1835–1916) English Conservative Party administrator. A supporter of Disraeli, Gorst was largely responsible for extending the Victorian Conservative Party electoral base to include middle‐ and working‐class support. Appointed Conservative Party agent in 1870, he established Conservative Central Office, and became secretary of the National Union in 1871. He was solicitor‐general 1885–86. Knighted 1885.
Goschen, George Joachim (1831–1907) (1st Viscount Goschen) British politician. Originally a Liberal, he held several cabinet posts under William Gladstone 1868–74, but broke with him in 1886 over Irish home rule. In Salisbury's Unionist government of 1886–92 he was chancellor of the Exchequer, and 1895–1900 was First Lord of the Admiralty. George Goschen British Liberal politician 'We have stood alone in that which is called isolation – our splendid isolation.' [Speech at Lewes 26 February 1896]
Gosse, (Laura) Sylvia (1881–1968) English artist and printmaker. A founder‐member of the avant‐garde London Group in 1914, she was influenced by the Impressionist painter Walter Sickert and post‐Impressionist Spencer Gore (1878–1914). Her work, which includes accomplished etchings, encompassed genre subjects and everyday interiors, often with a single figure, as well as urban and Continental scenes. Gosse was born in London, and studied at St John's Wood School of Art and the Royal Academy Schools. She met Walter Sickert in 1908, and became co‐principal at his school of painting and etching at Rowland House. In 1913 she had the first of many solo shows, and her work now features in many public collections throughout the UK. Her father was the writer and critic Edmund Gosse.
Gothic Architecture: England English architecture of the period beginning around the 1170s to the mid‐16th century. For information about English architecture prior to the Gothic
Page303 era. types of English Gothic English Gothic architecture is usually divided into three styles: Early English, or Early Pointed, from about 1174; Decorated, or Middle Pointed, from about 1330; and Perpendicular, or Late Pointed, (late 14th to mid 16th century). However, there was no abrupt line of change between these various periods; each style merged gradually into the next as new structural or decorative features were introduced. Sometimes the periods overlapped. distinguishing features One of the simplest ways of distinguishing these styles is by the design of their windows; but more important is the gradual development of vaulting and buttressing, whereby the thick walls and heavy barrel‐vaults, the flat buttresses and the narrow windows of the 12th century came to be replaced by bolder buttresses with thinner walls between them, thinner vaults supported on stone ribs, and much larger windows filled with tracery. Finally, in such late examples as King's College Chapel at Cambridge (1446–1515) and Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster (1500–12), the walls have become a mere panelled screen, mostly filled with glass. All the weight of the thin vaulted roof is carried by stone ribs that join on to very bold buttresses, capped with tall pinnacles which help to neutralize the downwards and outwards 'thrust' of the vaulting ribs, or (if there is no vaulting) of the timber roof‐trusses. examples The chief examples of the three Gothic styles are: Early English Cathedrals: most of Salisbury Cathedral; most of Lincoln Cathedral except the choir and west front; the west fronts of Peterborough and Ripon cathedrals; the choirs of Lichfield, Southwark, Southwell and Worcester cathedrals; most of Wells Cathedral including the west front; the nave of York Minster; the 'Chapel of the Nine Altars' at Durham Cathedral. Other buildings: the choirs of Westminster Abbey and of the Temple Church in London; the choir and transepts of Beverley Minster. Decorated Cathedrals: the naves of Exeter Cathedral and Lichfield Cathedral; the choirs of Bristol, Lincoln and St Albans cathedrals; the choir, west front and chapter‐house of York; the chapter‐houses of Salisbury, Southwell, and Wells cathedrals. Other buildings: the nave of Beverley Minster; the parish church of Heckington, Lincolnshire. Perpendicular Cathedrals: the naves of Canterbury Cathedral, Manchester Cathedral and Winchester Cathedral; the choirs of Gloucester Cathedral and York Minster; the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral; the west fronts of Winchester and Gloucester cathedrals. Other buildings: Sherborne Abbey; the west front of Beverley Minster; St George's Chapel, Windsor; King's College Chapel, Cambridge; Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster; the roof of Westminster Hall; several of the older colleges at Oxford and Cambridge. Gothic architecture in England died out very slowly, especially in Oxford; but, from about 1640 onwards up to about 1830, all English Architecture was based on that of Rome, save for a few exceptions that led to the Greek Revival and the Gothic Revival towards the end of that period. For information about European Gothic architecture.
Page304 Gow, Ian Reginald Edward (1937–1990) British Conservative politician. After qualifying as a solicitor, he was elected member of Parliament for Eastbourne in 1974. He became parliamentary private secretary to Margaret Thatcher in 1979 and her close ally. He secured steady promotion but resigned his post as minister of state in 1985 in protest at the signing of the Anglo‐Irish Agreement. A strong critic of terrorist acts, he was killed by an Irish Republican Army car bomb.
Grafton, Augustus Henry Fitzroy, 3rd Duke of Grafton (1735–1811) British politician. Grandson of the first duke, who was the son of Charles II and Barbara Villiers (1641–1709), Duchess of Cleveland. He became First Lord of the Treasury in 1766 and an unsuccessful acting prime minister 1767–70. Succeeded to dukedom 1757.
Graham, Robert (c. 1735–c. 1797) (later Cunninghame‐Graham) Scottish poet. He is chiefly remembered for his poem 'If doughty deeds my lady please'.
Granby, John Manners, Marquess of Granby (1721–1770) British soldier. His head appears on many inn‐signs in England as a result of his popularity as a commander of the British forces fighting in Europe in the Seven Years' War.
Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (GNCTU) first large‐scale British trade union founded in 1833 by Robert Owen as a broad‐ based coalition of working people. At its height, it claimed 500,000 members, drawn from a number of trades, including miners, tailors, bakers, and gasworkers. Its aim of a general strike to force an eight‐hour working day provoked a harsh reaction, from both the employers (many of whom locked out workers who would not sign a document renouncing the GNCTU) and the government, including the sentencing of the Tolpuddle Martyrs to transportation. As a result the movement collapsed in October 1834. Its main strength came from the support of the Lancashire cotton workers who had already been organized by John Doherty.
Grand Remonstrance petition passed by the English Parliament in November 1641 that listed all the alleged misdeeds of Charles I – 'the evils under which we have now many years suffered'. It then went on to blame those it thought responsible – the 'Jesuited papists', the bishops and Charles's councillors and courtiers. It demanded parliamentary approval for the king's ministers and the reform of the church. Charles refused to accept the Grand Remonstrance and countered by trying to arrest five leading members of the House of Commons. The worsening of relations between king and Parliament led to the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642.
Granville, George Leveson‐Gower (1815–1891) (2nd Earl of Granville) English politician. He was a member of Parliament 1836–46, and became vice‐president of the Board of Trade in 1848 and foreign secretary in 1851. In 1868 he was colonial secretary in the first administration of William Gladstone, and was foreign secretary in the Liberal administrations 1870–74 and 1880–85.
Page305 He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford.
Grattan, Henry (1746–1820) Irish politician. He entered the Irish parliament in 1775, led the patriot opposition, and obtained free trade and legislative independence for Ireland in 1782. After failing to prevent the Act of Union of Ireland and England in 1800 (effective 1801), he sat in the British Parliament and championed the cause of Catholic emancipation.
Great Britain official name for England, Scotland, and Wales, and the adjacent islands (except the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man) from 1603, when the English and Scottish crowns were united under James I of England (James VI of Scotland). With Northern Ireland it forms the United Kingdom.
Great Contract In England, proposal of the Lord Treasurer Robert Cecil 1610 that the Crown's old feudal revenues be replaced with a fixed annual income of £200,000. The king's debts, a further £600,000, were also to be paid as part of the proposal which was intended to regularize government income. Although the scheme was initially accepted by the Commons, negotiations broke down as James feared that the sums may not be sufficient and was reluctant to surrender power while parliament was concerned about granting the Crown too much financial independence.
Greater London Council (GLC) local authority that governed London 1965–86. When the GLC was abolished, its powers either devolved back to the borough councils or were transferred to certain nonelected bodies.
Great Exhibition world fair held in Hyde Park, London, UK, in 1851, proclaimed by its originator Prince Albert as 'the Great Exhibition of the Industries of All Nations'. In practice, it glorified British manufacture: over half the 100,000 exhibits were from Britain or the British Empire. Over 6 million people attended the exhibition. The exhibition hall, popularly known as the Crystal Palace, was constructed of glass with a cast‐iron frame, and designed by Joseph Paxton.
Great Rebellion revolt against the English government in Ireland between 1641 and 1650. It was supported by the Old Irish (descendants of the original Gaelic inhabitants) and Norman‐Irish (descendants of Norman settlers). Their killing of Protestant planters, settlers of confiscated Catholic land, and intrigue with Charles I during the English Civil War (1641–49), led to massive confrontation with Oliver Cromwell's Parliamentary forces during Cromwell's Irish campaign (1649–50). His victory led to the dominance of Irish Protestantism over the Roman Catholic majority in Ireland.
great seal in Britain, royal seal used to authenticate the monarch's assent to official documents, required for all the most important acts of state, such as dissolving parliaments and signing treaties. It was first used by Edward the Confessor in a period when monarchs were not expected to be able to write. The seal is kept by the
Page306 Lord Chancellor who travelled with the monarch until the 13th century, when the court of chancery became established in Westminster. A lesser seal, the privy seal, was then devised to authorize the chancellor to move the great seal. The circular design of the great seal has remained fairly constant, showing the monarch enthroned on one side and on horseback on the other, although during the interregnum of the 1650s, an alternative design was created, with an image of the Speaker's Chair in the House of Commons representing sovereign authority.
Green Cross Society British corps of women motor drivers in World War I, officially known as the Women's Reserve Ambulance, established June 1915. They collected wounded soldiers from the main London railway stations and took them to various hospitals in the suburbs. They were also trained in first aid and ambulance duties.
Greenwich, Treaty of treaty 1543 between the Scots and Henry VIII under which the Prince of Wales, the future Edward VI, would marry Mary Queen of Scots. The Scots reneged and Henry's attempts to enforce the treaty by a series of invasions over the next few years were known as the rough wooing.
Greenwood, Arthur (1880–1954) British Labour politican. A wartime member of Lloyd George's secretariat, he was member of Parliament for Nelson and Colne 1922–31, and for Wakefield 1932–54. He became deputy leader of the parliamentary Labour Party in 1935, showing himself an outspoken critic of 'appeasement'. In 1945 he was minister without portfolio, and in 1945 became Lord Privy Seal, resigning from the government in 1947. He remained treasurer of the Labour Party and became chair of the Labour Party's national executive in 1953.
Grenfell, Joyce (1910–1979) English entertainer. Her comic monologues gently mocked the habits and manners of middle‐class, English schoolmistresses and ageing spinster daughters. Her own one‐woman shows included Joyce Grenfell Requests the Pleasure (1954–55). She wrote her autobiography, Joyce Grenfell Requests the Pleasure (1976), and her catch‐phrase title George, Don't Do That (1977). Grenfell was born in London, and made her debut in The Little Revue in 1939. After touring hospitals with concert parties during World War II, she performed her monologues in revue until the early 1950s.
Grenville, George (1712–1770) English Whig politician, prime minister, and chancellor of the Exchequer, whose introduction of the Stamp Act of 1765 to raise revenue from the colonies was one of the causes of the American Revolution. His government was also responsible for prosecuting the radical John Wilkes.
Grenville, Richard (c. 1541–1591) English naval commander and adventurer who died heroically aboard his ship The Revenge when attacked by Spanish warships. Grenville fought in Hungary and Ireland (1566–69), and was knighted about 1577. In 1585 he commanded the expedition that founded Virginia, USA, for his cousin Walter Raleigh. From 1586 to 1588 he organized the defence of England against the Spanish
Page307 Armada.
Grenville, William Wyndham (1759–1834) (1st Baron Grenville) British Whig politician, home secretary from 1791, foreign secretary from 1794; he resigned along with Prime Minister Pitt the Younger in 1801 over George III's refusal to assent to Catholic emancipation. He headed the 'All the Talents' coalition of 1806–07 that abolished the slave trade. William Wyndham Grenville British Whig politician 'It is perfect blindness not to see that in the establishment of the French Republic (1793) is included the overthrow of all the other governments of Europe.' [Quoting the words of St Just in a letter to his elder brother, 17 September 1794 after the outbreak of war with France]
Gretna Green village in Dumfries and Galloway region, Scotland, where runaway marriages were legal after they were banned in England in 1754; all that was necessary was the couple's declaration, before witnesses, of their willingness to marry. From 1856 Scottish law required at least one of the parties to be resident in Scotland for a minimum of 21 days before the marriage, and marriage by declaration was abolished in 1940.
Grey, Charles (1764–1845) (2nd Earl Grey) British Whig politician. He entered Parliament in 1786, and in 1806 became First Lord of the Admiralty, and foreign secretary soon afterwards. As prime minister 1830–34, he carried the Great Reform Bill of 1832 that reshaped the parliamentary representative system and the act abolishing slavery throughout the British Empire in 1833. He succeeded to the earldom in 1807. Charles Grey British Whig politician and prime minister 'The only way with newspaper attacks is, as the Irish say, 'to keep never minding'. That has been my practice through life.' [In conversation during his final months as prime minister, Summer 1834]
Grey, Edward (1862–1933) (1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon) British Liberal politician, MP for Berwick on Tweed 1885–1916, nephew of Charles Grey. As foreign secretary 1905–16 he negotiated an entente with Russia in 1907, and backed France against Germany in the Agadir Incident of 1911. He published his memoirs, Twenty‐Five Years in 1925. Baronet 1882, Viscount 1916.
Page308 Edward Grey English Liberal politician 'The lamps are going out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.' [On the impending war 3 August 1914 Twenty‐Five Years]
Grey, George (1799–1882) British politician. He was appointed judge advocate in 1839, chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1841, and, during Lord John Russell's ministry, home secretary in 1846. Under Lord Palmerston he was home secretary 1855–58 and again 1861–66, and was chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1859–61.
Grey, Henry George (1802–1894) (3rd Earl Grey) British politician, son of Charles Grey. He served under his father as undersecretary for the colonies 1830–33, resigning because the cabinet would not back the immediate emancipation of slaves; he was secretary of war 1835– 39 and colonial secretary 1846–52. Henry Grey British politician 'Not merely worthless, but pernicious ... enlarging the range of our responsibilities, while yielding no additional resources for properly sustaining them.' [On acquisitions of African land, November 1846, quoted in K N Bell and W P Morrell Select Documents on British Colonial Policy, 1830– 1860 1928]
Grey, Lady Jane (1537–1554) Queen of England for nine days, 10–19 July 1553, the great‐granddaughter of Henry VII. She was married in 1553 to Lord Guildford Dudley (died 1554), son of the Duke of Northumberland. Edward VI was persuaded by Northumberland to set aside the claims to the throne of his sisters Mary and Elizabeth. When Edward died on 6 July 1553, Jane reluctantly accepted the crown and was proclaimed queen four days later. Mary, although a Roman Catholic, had the support of the populace, and the Lord Mayor of London announced that she was queen on 19 July. Grey was executed on Tower Green. Lady Jane Grey Queen of England 'One of the greatest benefits ... God gave me, is, that he sent me so sharp and severe parents, and so gentle a schoolmaster.' [To the humanist Roger Ascham on the eve of his departure for Germany in 1550, quoted in The Schoolmaster (1570). Her parents were the Duke of Suffolk and Lady Frances Brandon; her schoolmaster was John Aylmer, later Bishop of London]
Page309 Grierson, Robert (c. 1655–1733) (called 'Laird of Lag') Scottish persecutor of the Covenanters. He was especially active in enforcing the Test Act.
Griffith, Arthur (1872–1922) Irish journalist, propagandist and politician. He was active in nationalist politics from 1898 and united various nationalist parties to form Sinn Fein 1905. When the provisional Irish parliament declared a republic in 1919, he was elected vice president and signed the treaty that gave Eire its independence in 1921. He was elected the country's first president in 1922, dying in office later that year. Born in Dublin, Griffith was educated at the Christian Brothers school, was a founder member of the Gaelic Literary Society in 1893 and was active in the Gaelic League and the Irish Republican Brotherhood. He left the latter organization in 1910. Although a leading figure in the revolutionary period of Irish politics, Griffith opposed the use of force, and took no part in the Easter Rising of 1916. Instead he advocated Irish independence under a dual monarchy on the Austro‐Hungarian model, coupled with a protectionist scheme to encourage Irish economic self‐sufficiency. These ideas formed the basis of the programme of the Sinn Fein movement, which Griffith established in 1905. The organization remained comparatively weak until the government (wrongly) concluded that it had inspired the 1916 Rising, whereupon Griffith was arrested. Meanwhile, his movement was taken over by the Volunteers and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, and Griffith found himself vice president of an avowedly republican organization. He headed the Irish delegation that negotiated the settlement with the British in December 1921, and was elected president of the Dáil in January 1922, following de Valera's resignation. Griffith died suddenly of a cerebral haemorrhage on 12 August 1922.
Griffiths, James (1890–1975) Welsh miners' leader and politician. A strong believer in a measure of devolution for Wales, he argued for a separate Welsh Office, and became the first secretary of state for Wales 1964–66. Born in Bettws, Ammanford, Carmarthenshire, he became a leading official in the miners' union in South Wales, and was elected Labour member of Parliament for Llanelli 1936–70. He was deputy leader of the Labour Party 1955–58. In the Labour governments of 1945 to 1951, he was minister of National Insurance and secretary of state for the colonies. He saw himself as a moderating influence in Labour Party politics during the tensions of the Gaitskell–Bevan disputes in the 1950s. His autobiography Pages from Memory was published in 1969.
Grimond, Jo(seph), Baron Grimond (1913–1993) British Liberal politician, born in St Andrews, Scotland. As leader of the Liberal Party 1956–67, he aimed at making it 'a new radical party to take the place of the Socialist Party as an alternative to Conservatism'. An old‐style Whig and a man of culture and personal charm, he had a considerable influence on post‐war British politics, although he never held a major public position. During his term of office, the number of Liberal seats in Parliament doubled.
Grindal, Edmund (c. 1519–1583) English cleric and archbishop of Canterbury (1575–77). He served as a chaplain to Edward VI and during the reign of Mary I went into exile in Germany where he was influenced by Calvinist views. When Elizabeth I came to the throne in 1558, he returned to England and became bishop of
Page310 London in 1559, archbishop of York in 1570, and finally archbishop of Canterbury in 1575. He antagonized the queen and her court with his Puritan ethic and was removed as archbishop of Canterbury in 1577 after a dispute over 'prophesying', meetings of the clergy at which evangelical sermons were preached.
groat (('great penny')) English coin worth four pennies. Although first minted in 1279, the groat only became popular in the following century, when silver groats were produced. Half groats were introduced in 1351.
groundnuts scheme In Britain, unsuccessful attempt by Clement Attlee's Labour government 1946 to grow groundnuts (peanuts) in East Africa. The scheme was intended partly to improve Britain's balance of payments and partly to stimulate economic activity in the colonies in preparation for eventual independence. By 1949 the scheme proved an expensive failure, and the sheer improbability of the project, at huge cost to the taxpayer, made it a notorious fiasco.
Gruffydd ap Cynan (c. 1054–1137) King of Gwynedd from 1081 to 1137. He was raised in Ireland, but came to claim the throne of Gwynedd in 1075 and helped halt Norman penetration of Wales. Although defeated and exiled by the Normans in 1098, he returned and was allowed to establish his kingdom after paying homage to Henry I. He led a rising against English dominance in 1135 until his death two years later. He is traditionally regarded as a patron of music and the arts, and helped codify much of the previously chaotic bardic tradition.
Gruffydd ap Llewellyn (died 1063) King of Gwynedd. He had gained control of Gwynedd and Powys by 1039, Deheubarth by 1044, and extended his influence to Gwent by 1055. By the middle of the 11th century, most of Wales was either under his direct control or subject to his wishes, but his successors were unable to retain this dominance after his death. He conducted a series of raids across the English border and formed alliances with dissatisfied elements in Mercia and other English border areas. The English moved against him and defeated him at Rhuddlan in 1063, and he was killed by his own supporters.
guardian in Scotland, title given to official regent appointed when there is no monarch or the monarch is deemed incapable of governing.
guillotine in politics, a device used by UK governments in which the time allowed for debating a bill in the House of Commons is restricted so as to ensure its speedy passage to receiving the royal assent (that is, to becoming law). The tactic of guillotining was introduced during the 1880s to overcome attempts by Irish members of Parliament to obstruct the passing of legislation. The guillotine is also used as a parliamentary process in France.
Guinness, Benjamin Lee (1798–1868) Irish brewer, who was largely responsible for establishing the widespread popularity of the distinctive dark Guinness stout. Under his directorship, the family business grew into the largest of its kind in the world, exporting beer to Britain, Europe, and the United States. He was elected the
Page311 first Lord Mayor of Dublin in 1851. Born in Dublin, Benjamin Lee was the grandson of Arthur Guinness (1725–1803), who founded the Guinness Brewery at St James' Gate in 1759. He joined the firm at an early age, gaining sole control on his father's death in 1855. He also represented Dublin as an MP 1865–68, and restored St Patrick's Cathedral (1860–65) in the city at his own expense. He was made 1st Baronet in 1867.
Guinness, Edward Cecil (1847–1927) (1st Earl of Iveagh) Irish brewer, the third son of Benjamin Lee Guinness, and great‐grandson of Arthur Guinness (1725–1803), founder of the family business. He spent much of his huge fortune on philanthropic projects including housing in Dublin and London, and gave the mansion of Kenwood on Hampstead Heath, London, with its large collection of notable paintings, to the nation (the 'Iveagh bequest').
Gunpowder Plot in British history, the Catholic conspiracy to blow up James I and his parliament on 5 November 1605. It was discovered through an anonymous letter. Guy Fawkes was found in the cellar beneath the Palace of Westminster, ready to fire a store of explosives. Several of the conspirators were killed as they fled, and Fawkes and seven others were captured and executed. In 1604 the conspirators, led by Robert Catesby, took possession of a vault below the House of Lords where they stored barrels of gunpowder. Lord Monteagle, a Catholic peer, received the anonymous letter warning him not to attend Parliament on 5 November. A search was made, and Guy Fawkes was discovered in the vault and arrested. The event is commemorated annually in England on 5 November by fireworks and burning 'guys' (effigies) on bonfires. The searching of the vaults of Parliament before the opening of each new session, however, was not instituted until the Popish Plot of 1678.
Page312 Gunpowder Plot
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page313 The main conspirators of the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. Robert Catesby was the leader of the plot, while Guy Fawkes was the explosives expert. Their disaffection with James I arose from his failure to implement tolerance measures for Catholics as had been widely anticipated.
Guthrum Danish king of East Anglia. He led a large Danish invasion of Anglo‐Saxon England 878 but was defeated by King Alfred at the Battle of Edington 878. His reign 880–890 was mostly peaceful.
Gwynedd, kingdom of medieval Welsh kingdom comprising north Wales and Anglesey. It was the most powerful kingdom in Wales during the 10th and 11th centuries: its king Gruffydd ap Llewellyn dominated Wales in the mid‐11th century and nearly succeeded in uniting the Welsh. When the Normans invaded England, Gwynedd led Welsh resistance against Norman efforts to extend their writ over the border, with mixed success. Llewellyn ap Gruffydd styled himself Prince of Wales in 1258, and the English king Henry III was forced to acknowledge him as such in 1267. Edward I rightly recognized Gwynedd as the key to subduing the Welsh and he launched a major offensive against Llewellyn in 1277, ultimately destroying the kingdom. Gwynedd was broken up and the lands of the ruling dynasty passed to the English Prince of Wales.
H Haddingtonshire name until 1921 of the Scottish county of East Lothian, since 1975 part of the region of Lothian.
Hague, William Jefferson (1961–) English Conservative politician, leader of the Conservative Party 1997–2001. He entered the House of Commons in 1989, representing the constituency of Richmond, Yorkshire, and was private secretary to the chancellor of the Exchequer 1990–93, parliamentary under‐secretary of state for social security 1993–94, minister for social security and disabled people 1994–95, and secretary of state for Wales 1995–97. After the Conservative Party's defeat in the May 1997 general election, he succeeded John Major as party leader. In 1998 he committed the party to oppose joining the European single currency for at least a decade and launched major reforms of the party's organization. However, he resigned as party leader in 2001 following a second Conservative general election defeat. Born in Yorkshire, Hague came to public attention in 1977 when, at the age of 16, he addressed the party's annual conference. He was educated at Oxford University where he became president of the Union in 1981. After completing an MBA course he worked for a management consultancy company 1983–88 before entering full‐time politics. Julian Critchley Former Conservative MP expelled from the party for supporting the 'Pro‐Euro Conservatives' in the
Page314 European election 'I don't think I shall subscribe to little William. I think he will go quietly down the tubes on his own.' [On being asked whether he would still subscribe to party funds; Today, Radio Four, 25 June 1999] Stella Hague Mother of the Conservative Party leader, William Hague 'The first girl spoke on My Little Pony, the second boy on 'what I did in the holidays'. William spoke on reform of the House Of Lords.' [On William Hague's childhood; Independent, 26 July 1997] William Hague Leader of the Opposition 'Before New Labour, politicians fought elections in order to govern. This administration governs in order to fight elections.' [Replying to the Queen's Speech; Daily Telegraph, 25 November 1998] William Hague Leader of the Conservative Party 'We have struck a blow for the independence of our country and the future of the pound.' [On the outcome of the elections to the European Parliament, in which the Conservatives won 36 seats to Labour's 29. Only 23 percent of the UK electorate bothered to vote; Radio 5 Live, 14 June 1999]
Haig, Douglas (1861–1928) (1st Earl Haig) Scottish army officer, commander‐in‐chief in World War I, born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His Somme offensive in France in the summer of 1916 made considerable advances only at enormous cost to human life, and his Passchendaele offensive in Belgium from July to November 1917 achieved little at a similar loss. He was created field marshal in 1917 and, after retiring, became first president of the British Legion in 1921. Douglas Haig British army officer 'D. is a very weak‐minded fellow I am afraid, and, like the feather pillow, bears the marks of the last person who has sat on him!'
Page315 [Of the 17th Earl of Derby in letter to Lady Haig 14 January 1918] Douglas Haig British army officer 'Every position must be held to the last man: there must be no retirement. With our backs to the wall, and believing in the justice of our cause, each one must fight on to the end.' [Order given, 12 April 1918]
Hailes (Lord) title of David Dalrymple, Scottish judge and historian.
Hailsham, Douglas McGarel Hogg, 1st Viscount and Baron (1872–1950) British lawyer and Conservative politician. He was Attorney General 1922–24 and 1924–28, and was Lord Chancellor 1928–29 and again 1935–38.
Hailsham, Quintin McGarel Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone (1907–2001) British Conservative politician and lawyer. Having succeeded as 2nd Viscount Hailsham in 1950, he renounced the title in 1963 to re‐enter the House of Commons, and was then able to contest the Conservative Party leadership elections. He took a life peerage in 1970 on his appointment as Lord Chancellor 1970–74 and was Lord Chancellor again 1979–87. Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham British lawyer and Conservative politician 'The moment politics becomes dull democracy is in danger.' [Remark 1966]
Haldane, Richard Burdon (1856–1928) (1st Viscount Haldane) British Liberal politician, born in Scotland. As secretary for war 1905–12, he sponsored the army reforms that established an expeditionary force, backed by a territorial army and under the unified control of an imperial general staff. He was Lord Chancellor 1912–15 and in the Labour government of 1924. His writings on German philosophy led to accusations of his having pro‐German sympathies. Viscount 1911. His publications include Human Experience (1926).
Page316 halfpenny (or ha'penny) originally round silver coins, first minted in the reign of Alfred the Great, and from 1672 the first English copper coin. From the 10th to the 13th centuries, the halfpenny was literally a full penny cut in half but it gradually became a coin in its own right. It was withdrawn with the advent of decimalization in 1969, although it remained legal tender until the 1980s.
Halidon Hill, Battle of battle fought on 19 July 1333, 3 km/2 mi northwest of Berwick‐upon‐Tweed in Northumberland, England. Edward Baliol (d. 1364), who had been deposed as king of Scotland the previous year, defeated a force of nationalist Scots with the aid of archers supplied by Edward III.
Halifax, Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax (2nd creation) (1881–1959) British Conservative politician, viceroy of India 1926–31. As foreign secretary 1938–40 he was associated with Chamberlain's 'appeasement' policy. He received an earldom in 1944 for services to the Allied cause while ambassador to the USA 1941–46. Baron in 1925, succeeded as viscount in 1934, created earl in 1944. Edward Halifax British Conservative politician 'I often think how much easier the world would have been to manage if Herr Hitler and Signor Mussolini had been at Oxford.' [Speech 4 November 1937]
Halifax, George Montagu Dunk, 2nd Earl of (1716–1771) English politician. In 1748 he was made president of the Board of Trade, and helped to found Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1757 he entered the Cabinet. In 1761 he was appointed lord‐lieutenant of Ireland, and first lord of the Admiralty. In 1762 he became secretary of state for the Northern Department under the Earl of Bute. He was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He assumed the surname Dunk on his marriage in 1741 to the heiress of Sir Thomas Dunk.
Halifax, George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax (1633–1695) English politician. He entered Parliament in 1660, and was raised to the peerage by Charles II, by whom he was also later dismissed. He strove to steer a middle course between extremists, and became known as 'the Trimmer'. He played a prominent part in the revolution of 1688. Baronet 1644, Viscount 1668, Marquess 1682. George Savile Halifax English politician 'Men are not hanged for stealing horses, but that horses may not be stolen.'
Page317 [Political, Moral and Miscellaneous Thoughts and Reflections, 'Of Punishment'] George Savile Halifax English politician 'When the People contend for their Liberty, they seldom get anything by their Victory but new masters.' [Attributed remark]
Hall, (William) Reginald (1870–1943) British admiral. In October 1914 as director of Naval Intelligence he founded 'Room 40', the naval cryptanalysis office which successfully broke German naval codes and was responsible for decoding the Zimmerman Telegram. KCMG 1918.
Hallam, Henry (1777–1859) British historian. He was called to the Bar, but a private fortune enabled him to devote himself to historical study from 1812 and his Constitutional History of England 1827 established his reputation.
Halsbury, Hardinge Stanley Giffard, 1st Earl of (1823–1921) English lawyer and statesman. He was solicitor‐general under Disraeli 1875– 80, and also lord chancellor four times between 1885 and 1905. He was born in London and educated at Oxford. In 1850 he was called to the Bar of the Inner Temple, and in 1865 became a QC. He was MP (Conservative) for Launceston 1877–85. In 1885 he was created Baron Halsbury. In 1898 he became Earl of Halsbury, and Viscount Tiverton. He was foremost among the 'Diehards' who opposed the passing of the 1911 Parliament Bill through the House of Lords. Among other things, this shortened the life of a parliament from seven to five years. As late as 1916, he sat as a judge in the House of Lords. Halsbury also edited the 31 volumes of The Laws of England (1907–17) in alphabetical order of subjects.
Hamilton, Emma, Lady (c. 1761–1815) (born Amy Lyon) English courtesan. In 1782 she became the mistress of Charles Greville and in 1786 of his uncle Sir William Hamilton (1730–1803), the British envoy to the court of Naples, who married her in 1791. After Admiral Nelson's return from the Nile in 1798 during the Napoleonic Wars, she became his mistress and their daughter, Horatia, was born in 1801. After Nelson's death in battle in 1805, Lady Hamilton spent her inheritance and died in poverty in Calais, France. She had been a great beauty and had posed for several artists, especially George Romney.
Hamilton, James (1606–1649) (3rd Marquis and 1st Duke of Hamilton) Scottish adviser to Charles I. He led an army against the Covenanters (supporters of the National Covenant of 1638 to establish Presbyterianism) in 1639 and subsequently took part in the negotiations between Charles and the Scots. In the
Page318 second English Civil War he led the Scottish invasion of England, but was captured at Preston and executed. He succeeded as marquis in 1625, and was made a duke in 1643.
Hamilton, Thomas (1953–1996) Scottish murderer who entered the gym of a primary school in Dunblane, Scotland, in March 1996 and shot dead 16 children and a teacher and injured many other children. Hamilton shot and killed himself after the attack. Directly as a result of this crime, the British Government banned the ownership of handguns in the UK in 1997. Hamilton had been a regular purchaser of firearms for more than 20 years and had been investigated by two councils for alleged misconduct towards young boys while he was a Boy Scout master.
Hamilton, William (1730–1803) British diplomat and antiquary. While envoy to the court of Naples 1764–1800, he studied local volcanic activity and earthquakes, and wrote an account of the ancient Italian city of Pompeii. He assembled a collection of Greek vases and other antiquities, part of which he sold to the British Museum 1772. In 1791 he married the English courtesan Emma Lyon, who became Emma Hamilton, subsequently the mistress of Admiral Horatio Nelson.
Hammond, Robert (1621–1654) English soldier. He was colonel of a regiment of foot in the New Model Army. In the struggle between the army and the Parliament in 1647, Hammond supported the former. He was appointed governor of the Isle of Wight, where King Charles I was held in custody 1647–48.
Hamond, Andrew Snape (1738–1828) English naval captain. After distinguishing himself during the American War of Independence, in 1780 he was appointed governor of Nova Scotia and commander‐in‐chief at Halifax. In 1794 he became comptroller of the navy, a post he retained, at the special request of Pitt, until his retirement in 1806. He was born at Blackheath, Kent. He entered the navy in 1753 and took part in the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759. In 1793 he was appointed a commissioner of the navy. He was MP for Ipswich 1796–1806.
Hampden, John (1594–1643) English politician. His refusal in 1636 to pay ship money, a compulsory tax levied to support the navy, made him a national figure. In the Short and Long Parliaments he proved himself a skilful debater and parliamentary strategist. King Charles I's attempt to arrest him and four other leading MPs made the Civil War inevitable. He raised his own regiment on the outbreak of hostilities, and on 18 June 1643 was mortally wounded at the skirmish of Chalgrove Field in Oxfordshire.
Hampton Court Palace former royal residence near Richmond, England, 24 km/15 mi west of central London. Hampton Court is one of the greatest historical monuments in the UK, and contains some of the finest examples of Tudor architecture and of Christopher Wren's work. It was built in 1515 by Cardinal Wolsey and presented by him to Henry VIII who subsequently enlarged and improved it. In the 17th century William (III) and Mary (II) made it their main residence outside London, and the palace was further enlarged by Wren. Part of the building was
Page319 extensively damaged by fire in 1986. The last monarch to live at Hampton Court was George II, who died in 1760. During his life many of the Tudor apartments were pulled down and replaced. The palace was opened to the public, free of charge, by Queen Victoria in 1838 (though visitors now pay an admission fee). Hampton Court has a remarkable collection of pictures housed in the Hampton Court Gallery.
hand‐loom weavers textile workers of the late 18th and early 19th centuries who used manually operated machines often as 'out‐workers'. They were in great demand and relatively highly paid until the advent of mechanised methods of weaving made hand‐weaving expensive and slow. There were as many as 200,000 in the late 1820s so the loss of work or cut in wages caused great hardship, particularly in the northwest of England where the trade had been the mainstay of many outlying villages. The problem caused great concern and a royal commission was established 1842, which recommended measures to find alternative employment.
Hanratty, James (1936–1962) Alleged English murderer. He was found guilty of the murder of Michael Gregsten, who was shot while in his car with his lover, Valerie Storie, in August 1961. After Hanratty was hanged in April 1962, several witnesses came forward supporting his alibi. A police inquiry in 1997 concluded that he was wrongly convicted, and the alleged miscarriage of justice was passed to the Criminal Cases Review Commission; in March 1999 the case was referred back to the Court of Appeal. Storie, who had been raped and paralysed by several bullets, picked out Hanratty from an identity parade and he was charged. Hanratty, who was reportedly a petty criminal of low intelligence, denied the charge but refused to name his alibis, saying that to do so would betray his friends' trust. He then changed the location of his alibi from Liverpool to Rhyl, where he was later reported to have been seen. His family has campaigned for over 30 years to clear his name.
Harcourt, William George Granville Venables Vernon (1827–1904) British Liberal politician. He was home secretary under William Gladstone 1880–85, chancellor of the Exchequer 1886 and 1892–95, and leader of the Liberal Party in the House of Commons 1894–98.
Hardie, (James) Keir (1856–1915) Scottish socialist, the first British Labour politician, member of Parliament 1892–95 and 1900–15. He worked in the mines as a boy and in 1886 became secretary of the Scottish Miners' Federation. In 1888 he was the first Labour candidate to stand for Parliament; he entered Parliament independently as a Labour member in 1892, he became chair of the Labour party 1906–08 and 1909–10, and in 1893 was a chief founder of the Independent Labour Party.
Page320 Hardie
(Image © Billie Love)
Page321 Scottish socialist politician Keir Hardie entered the British parliament independently in 1892 as the first Labour member. He co‐founded the Independent Labour Party in 1893 but, as an ardent pacifist, withdrew from Labour politics when the majority of his colleagues declared their support for British participation in World War I. He remained an MP until his death in 1915. Keir Hardie Scottish socialist 'I understand what Christ suffered in Gethsemane as well as any man living.' [Speaking to friends after hostility in Aberdare 6 August 1914]
Harding, John (Allan Francis) (1896–1989) (1st Baron Harding of Petherton) British field marshal. During World War II he was Chief of Staff in Egypt 1940 and Italy 1944. As governor of Cyprus 1955–57, during the period of political agitation prior to independence 1960, he was responsible for the deportation of Makarios III from Cyprus 1955. Commissioned in 1914, he fought in World War I and commanded a battalion at age 21. At the outbreak of World War II he was transferred from India to the Middle East, where he rose to be major general, commanding the 7th Armoured Division at Alamein. He was made field marshal 1953.
Hardinge of Lahore, Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount (1785–1856) British general. He became governor general of India 1844 during a campaign against the Sikhs. After the Peace of Lahore, he succeeded Wellington as commander‐in‐chief 1852, and was made a field marshal 1855.
Hardy, Charles (1716–1780) British admiral. He entered the navy c. 1730. In 1744 he was charged with the loss of a convoy to Newfoundland, but was eventually acquitted. In 1755 he was made governor of New York, and took part in the siege of Louisbourg; he was made an admiral in 1770. He was appointed governor of Greenwich Hospital in 1771, and was given command of the Channel Fleet in 1779.
Hardy, Thomas Masterman (1769–1839) British sailor. At the Battle of Trafalgar he was Admiral Nelson's flag captain in the Victory, attending him during his dying moments. He became First Sea Lord 1830. Hardy was born in Dorset, England, entered the navy 1781, and in 1793 was promoted to lieutenant. In 1798 he joined Horatio Nelson near Elba, and was present at the battle of the Nile. Hardy became vice admiral 1837.
Page322 Harfleur, siege of French siege of English‐held port on the mouth of the Seine, late 1415. Henry V seized the port at great cost Aug–Sept 1415 and the French maintained vigorous efforts to recapture the town, even after their defeat at Agincourt. Henry tried to promote Harfleur as a permanent English possession on French soil, like Calais, and went to great lengths to encourage English immigration. The English held until 1435 when it was retaken by the French for 5 years, before passing back into English possession 1440–49.
Hargreaves, Alison (1962–1995) (married name Alison Ballard) English mountaineer. In 1988 she became the first British woman to climb the north face of the Eiger. She scaled the six main Alpine north faces (the Eiger, Matterhorn, Grandes Jorasses, Dru, Badille, and Cima Grande) solo in a single season during 1993, and in May 1995 climbed Mount Everest alone and without supplementary oxygen. In August 1995 she climbed K2, the world's second biggest mountain, but died in a blizzard on the descent. Hargreaves was born in Belper, Derbyshire. She learned to climb at secondary school, and then joined Jim Ballard, later her husband, in his outdoor climbing business. Her record‐breaking climb on the Eiger in 1988 was achieved while six months pregnant with their first child.
Hargreaves, James (c. 1720–1778) English inventor who co‐invented a carding machine for cotton in 1760. In c. 1764 he invented his 'spinning jenny' (patented in 1770), which enabled a number of threads to be spun simultaneously by one person.
Harington, Charles (1872–1940) British general. Harington served on the staff during the South African War 1899–1902, and in World War I became chief of the general staff, British Forces Italy 1917. In 1918 he was appointed deputy chief of the Imperial general staff, war office.
Harley, Robert (1661–1724) (1st Earl of Oxford) British Tory politician, chief minister to Queen Anne 1711–14, when he negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht 1713. Accused of treason as a Jacobite after the accession of George I, he was imprisoned 1714–17. Earl 1711.
Harold two kings of England:
Harold I (1016–1040) King of England from 1035. The illegitimate son of Canute, known as Harefoot, he claimed the crown on the death of his father, when the rightful heir, his half‐brother Hardicanute, was in Denmark and unable to ascend the throne. He was elected king in 1037, but died three years later, as Hardicanute was preparing to invade England.
Harold (II) Godwinson (c. 1020–1066) last Anglo‐Saxon king of England, January to October 1066. He was defeated and killed by William of Normandy (William (I) the Conqueror) at the Battle of Hastings. He succeeded his father Earl Godwin in 1053 as Earl of Wessex. Harold was Edward the Confessor's military commander, and became so powerful that one chronicler described him as the 'sub‐king'. In about 1063 William of Normandy tricked or forced
Page323 him into swearing to support his claim to the English throne, and when the Witan (the Anglo‐Saxon council including government officials, landowners, and high‐ranking churchmen) elected Harold to succeed Edward the Confessor, William prepared to invade. Meanwhile, Harold's treacherous brother Tostig (died 1066) joined the King of Norway Harald (III) Hardrada in invading Northumbria. Harold defeated and killed them at Stamford Bridge on 25 September. Three days later William landed at Pevensey, Sussex, and Harold was killed at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October. Harold II King of England 'We will give him seven feet of English ground, or as much more as he may be taller than other men.' [Of Harald Sigurdson, on his invasion. Quoted in Snorri Sturluson Heimskringla X xci] Harold II King of England 'We march straight on; we march to victory.' [Attributed remark before the Battle of Hastings]
Harrington, James (1611–1677) English political philosopher. He spent some time with Charles I during his imprisonment, and on the king's death devoted himself to the composition of Oceana, a minutely worked‐out scheme for an oligarchical republic, which had some influence on the authors of the US constitution. He held that power was based ultimately on landed property, and that executive office should be held in rotation by ballot. In 1661 he was imprisoned by Charles II on a charge of conspiracy. Harrington was born in Upton, Northamptonshire, England.
Harrison, Thomas (1606–1660) English Civil War soldier, politician, and Puritan. In 1642 he enlisted in the Earl of Essex's bodyguard, and was a major at the battle of Marston Moor. He entered the New Model Army with Fleetwood, and was present at the battles of Naseby and Langport and at the captures of Winchester and Basing. He signed Charles I's death‐warrant. From 1650–51 he held chief command in England during Cromwell's absence, and after the battle of Worcester in 1651 was charged with the pursuit of the fleeing Royalists. He assisted in expelling the Rump Parliament in 1653, and was a leading member of the Barebones Parliament in the same year. Harrison was born in Newcastle‐under‐Lyme, England. He was one of the prominent Fifth Monarchy Men of the period. He was deprived of his commission in 1653, and was imprisonment for his ideals (1655–56 and 1658–59). At the Restoration he was executed as a regicide.
Page324 harrying of the north ruthless Norman repression of the Anglo‐Saxon rebellion in the north of England (1069–70). After his victory at the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror faced a series of revolts against Norman rule across England which he suppressed effectively but ruthlessly. The rising in the north was led by Edgar the Aetheling, an Anglo‐Saxon prince, and Earl Waltheof, assisted by a Danish invasion. William first devastated the areas around York to isolate his enemies; the revolt was quickly suppressed and the Danes driven off. William continued his campaign around the north of England to deter further risings and in 1070 attacked parts of Mercia as well. The 'harrying' was effective in deterring potential rebels but famine followed his military campaign and even the Norman writer Ordericus Vitalis described it as 'barbarous homicide'. The Domesday Book survey of 1086 recorded that large areas of the north were devastated.
Hart, Judith Constance Mary (1924–1991) (Baroness Hart) British Labour politician and sociologist. She was minister of overseas development 1969–70 and 1977–79, and minister of state 1974–75.
Hart, Robert (1835–1911) British administrator. In 1859 he joined the new Chinese imperial maritime customs service, and became inspector‐general in 1863, a post he held nominally until his death, having handed over his powers to a board of Chinese officials in 1906. He inaugurated the first modern postal service in China. He published These from the Land of Sinim (1901), a description of China and its people. Hart was born in Portadown, County Armagh, Northern Ireland. He was educated at Queen's College, Belfast.
Hartington, Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington and 8th Duke of Devonshire (1833–1908) British politician, first leader of the Liberal Unionists 1886–1903. As war minister he opposed devolution for Ireland in cabinet and later led the revolt of the Liberal Unionists that defeated Gladstone's Irish Home Rule Bill of 1886. Hartington refused the premiership three times, in 1880, 1886, and 1887, and led the opposition to the Irish Home Rule Bill in the House of Lords in 1893.
Hartlepools, bombardment of in World War I, German attack on the North Yorkshire coast, specifically the seaports of Hartlepool, West Hartlepool, Whitby, and Scarborough 16 December 1914.
Harvey, William (1578–1657) English physician who discovered the circulation of blood. In 1628 he published his book De motu cordis/On the Motion of the Heart and the Blood in Animals. He also explored the development of chick and deer embryos. Harvey's discovery marked the beginning of the end of medicine as taught by Galen, which had been accepted for 1,400 years.
Page325 Harvey
(Image © Billie Love)
English doctor and anatomist William Harvey, demonstrating his theory of the circulation of the blood to the British king Charles I and other physicians. His discovery marked a new epoch in medical science, recognizing that the heart pumps blood in a continuous circulation. Appointed physician to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, Harvey attended James I during his last illness and later became physician to his son Charles. William Harvey English physician 'Both Hen and Housewife are so matched, That her Son born is only her Son hatched, And when her teeming hopes have prosperous been, Yet to conceive is but to lay within.' [The Generation of Animals 1651]
Page326 Hassal, Joan (1906–1988) English artist and illustrator. Her subject matter was wide ranging, from natural history to illustrations for English literary classics. Greatly admired for her perfectionist, sensitive approach, her style was similar to the English wood‐engraver Thomas Bewick. She became the first woman master member of the Art Workers Guild. Hassal was born in Notting Hill, London. After attending the Royal Academy schools, she studied wood engraving at the London Central College School of Photo Engraving and Lithography.
Hastings, Francis Rawdon, 1st Marquess of Hastings (1754–1826) British governor‐general of India. He was a strong and imaginative administrator, devoting himself to the successful consolidation of British rule. He spent his last years, from 1824–26, as governor of Malta. Hastings was born in County Down, Ireland. He was educated at Harrow and Oxford University and then served in the British army. From 1775–82 he fought in the War of American Independence, and was made Baron Rawdon on his return to Great Britain in 1783. He subsequently fought in Flanders in 1794, was appointed commander‐in‐chief in Scotland in 1803, master‐general of the ordnance in 1806, and governor‐general of India in 1813.
Hastings, Battle of battle on 14 October 1066 at which William, Duke of Normandy (William (I) the Conqueror) defeated King Harold II of England. Harold was killed leaving the throne open for William to complete the Norman Conquest. The site is 10 km/6 mi inland from Hastings, at Senlac, Sussex; it is marked by Battle Abbey. The story of the battle is told in a sequence of scenes in the Bayeux Tapestry. Having defeated an invasion by King Harald (III) Hardrada of Norway at the Battle of Stamford Bridge (25 September 1066), Harold moved south to counter the landing of the Duke of Normandy, who had laid a claim to the English throne, at Pevensey Bay, Kent. Harold's army of about 9,000 men took its stand on top of a steep ridge. The bulk of the army was formed by peasants gathered from the south who had not taken part at Stamford, while most of the men who had fought in the north were Harold's housecarls, seasoned war veterans whose effectiveness should not have been marred by the battle and subsequent march south. There may, however, have been some element of fatigue among the English forces. The Normans also had the better weaponry, with archers supported by cavalry. Both sides suffered heavy losses until the Normans eventually managed to break through the English ranks and gain victory.
Hatton, Sir Christopher (1540–1591) Lord Chancellor (1587–91) and favourite of Queen Elizabeth I of England. He first came to the queen's attention with his dancing and became an influential and conservative courtier. As a Privy Councillor from 1577, he acted as a government spokesperson in the Commons and in Council supported the Earl of Leicester's hardline anti‐Spanish foreign policy. He took a conservative line on the religious status quo, playing a leading part in the trials of Catholic conspirators and Mary Queen of Scots in 1586, and as Lord Chancellor, working hard to suppress extreme Puritans and religious separatists.
Havelock, Henry (1795–1857) British soldier. He joined the army in 1815 and went to
Page327 India eight years later. He served in the Burmese war (1824–26) and was aide‐de‐camp to Willoughby Cotton in the Afghan war of 1839. In the Indian Mutiny, during the last year of his life, he won worldwide renown. He captured Cawnpore in July and was promoted to major‐ general. In the following few months he effected the relief of Lucknow. A few days later he died.
Havers, Robert Michael Oldfield, Baron Havers (1923–1992) British Conservative politician and lawyer, Lord Chancellor 1987–88. After a successful legal career he became Conservative member of Parliament for Wimbledon in 1970 and was solicitor general under Edward Heath and attorney general under Margaret Thatcher. He was made a life peer in 1987 and served briefly, and unhappily, as Lord Chancellor before retiring in 1988. Knighted 1972. Baron 1987.
Hawke of Lowton, Edward, Baron Hawke of Lowton (1705–1781) English admiral of the fleet. He joined the navy 1720 and became a commander in 1733. In 1744 he distinguished himself in the action off Toulon, commanding the Berwick. In 1747 he became a rear‐admiral and gained a victory over the French off Finisterre. For this service he was knighted and he became member of Parliament for Portsmouth in the same year. He became an admiral in 1757. His reputation was enhanced in 1759 after his attack on Marshal de Conflan in Quiberon Bay, which resulted in the destruction of the French fleet and the collapse of their invasion scheme. In 1766 he became first lord of the Admiralty and was made Baron Hawke. He was born in London, England.
Hawkes, Jacquetta (1910–1996) (born Jacquetta Hopkins) English archaeologist and writer. Principally a British prehistorian, she also wrote on Egyptian topics, and produced novels and poetry. Her publications include Prehistoric Britain (1944, with Christopher Hawkes), The World of the Past (1963), and the Shell Guide to British Archaeology (1986). She was a co‐founder of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1957, and served on the Central Committee of UNESCO 1966–79. Hawkes was the first woman to study archaeology and anthropology to degree level. Her early works include The Archaeology of Jersey (1939), Early Britain (1945), and A Land (1951). She also produced a biography of Mortimer Wheeler; a book of poetry, Symbols and Speculations (1948); and co‐wrote Journey Down the Rainbow (1955), and other fiction, with the novelist J B Priestley, her second husband.
Hawkins, John (1532–1595) English navigator, born in Plymouth. Treasurer to the navy, 1573–89, he was knighted for his services as a commander against the Spanish Armada in 1588. John Hawkins English navigator 'Serve God daily, love one another, preserve your victuals, beware of fire and keep good fellowship [i.e. keep ships close together].' [Hawkins' orders to his ships on his second slaving voyage 1564, quoted in C R N Routh Who's Who in Tudor England]
Page328 Hawkins, Richard (c. 1560–1622) English navigator, son of John Hawkins. He held a command against the Spanish Armada in 1588, was captured in an expedition against Spanish possessions (1593–94) and released in 1602. Knighted in 1603.
Heads of Proposals In England, constitutional demands drawn up by senior parliamentarian officers July 1647 as a basis for settlement with Charles I at the end of the Civil War. The proposals which were drafted by Henry Ireton, Cromwell's son‐in‐law, included demands for electoral reform, regular biennial parliaments, a mild form of episcopacy and some religious toleration, parliamentary control of the armed forces, and the right to nominate ministers for a ten‐year period. Although the demands were relatively modest, Charles refused to accept the proposals and fled to the Isle of Wight from where he concluded an alternative Engagement with the Scots
Healy, Timothy Michael (1855–1931) Irish lawyer, politician, and first governor‐general of the Irish Free State. Healy supported Irish nationalist Charles Parnell until the split in the Irish Nationalist party occasioned by the O'Shea divorce case in 1890. Later he was in favour of reunion under the leadership of John Redmond, but in 1900 he was expelled from the party for his opposition to the United Irish League. He was re‐admitted in 1908, but was again expelled in 1910, in which year he formed, with William O'Brien, the Independent Nationalist party. Healy retired from politics in 1918. In 1922 he became the first governor‐general of the Irish Free State, a post he held for five years. Healy was born in Bantry, Ireland. He was called to the Irish Bar in 1884, and became a Queen's Counsel in 1899. In 1903 he was called to the English Bar, and he was a Bencher of Gray's Inn and of King's Inn, Dublin. He was elected MP for Wexford in 1880, for Monaghan in 1833, for South Londonderry in 1885, for North Longford in 1887, for North Louth in 1892, and North East Cork in 1910, a seat he retained until 1918.
hearth tax unpopular national tax introduced in England in 1662 at two shillings for every fire hearth, with exemptions for the poor. It was part of the government's attempt to replace feudal dues with a more regular source of revenue but proved highly unpopular and it had to be abandoned 1689 (1690 in Scotland) in favour of a window tax.
Heath, Edward (Richard George) (1916–) British Conservative politician, party leader 1965–75. As prime minister 1970–74 he took the UK into the European Community (EC) but was brought down by economic and industrial‐relations crises at home. He was replaced as party leader by Margaret Thatcher in 1975, and became increasingly critical of her policies and her opposition to the UK's full participation in the EC. During John Major's administration 1990–97, he undertook missions in Iraq in 1990 and 1993 to negotiate the release of British hostages, but also continued his attacks on 'Eurosceptics' within the party. He stepped down as an MP in 2001. Edward Heath British Conservative prime minister
Page329 'It is the unpleasant and unacceptable face of capitalism.' [On the Lonrho Scandal Hansard 15 May 1973] Edward Heath British Conservative prime minister 'We are the trade union for pensioners and children, the trade union for the disabled and the sick ... the trade union for the nation as a whole.' [Election speech, February 1974] Edward Heath British Conservative prime minister 'We may be a small island, but we are not a small people.' [The Observer 21 June 1970]
Heathfield, George Augustus Eliott, Baron Heathfield (1717–1790) Scottish general. He was a volunteer in the Prussian army (1735–36), then served in the War of Austrian Succession at Dettingen and Fontenoy, and in the West Indies in the Seven Years' War. In 1775, at the outbreak of the War of American Independence, he was sent out as governor to Gibraltar, and defended it heroically against Spanish attacks from 1779–83 (Spain having intervened in the war in 1779 by using New Orleans as a base for privateers against British shipping). Heathfield was born at Stobbs, Roxburghshire, Scotland. He was educated at Leyden University and Woolwich. On his return to England in 1787 he was made Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar.
Heffer, Eric Samuel (1922–1991) British Labour politician, member of Parliament for Walton, Liverpool 1964–91. He held a ministerial post 1974–75, joined Michael Foot's shadow cabinet in 1981, and was regularly elected to Labour's National Executive Committee, but found it difficult to follow the majority view.
Heligoland Bight, Battle of World War I naval battle between British and German forces 28 August 1914 fought in the Heligoland Bight, the stretch of water between Heligoland island and the German mainland used by the German fleet for exercises. The British launched a surprise raid on the German vessels exercising in the Bight and succeeded in sinking three light cruisers and a destroyer, a severe blow to German naval morale.
Page330 Hell‐Fire Club 18th‐century club devoted to hedonism and debauchery established by Sir Francis Dashwood (1708–1781) in the village of Medmenham, Buckinghamshire, England. The club reputedly engaged in wild orgies, including devil worship, in caves under the village church. Most of these rumours were later proved to be untrue, but the club revelled in the notoriety they caused and it spawned a series of imitators.
Henderson, Arthur (1863–1935) British Labour politician and trade unionist, leader of the Labour Party 1914–1918, born in Scotland. He helped to transform the Labour Party from a pressure group into a party of government, and was home secretary 1924–29 in the first Labour government. As foreign secretary 1929–31 he accorded the Soviet government full recognition. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1934 for his work for international disarmament. Henderson was born in Glasgow and brought up in Newcastle upon Tyne. In 1903 he was elected to Parliament as member for Rochdale. He worked closely with other Labour politicians, including Kier Hardie and Ramsay MacDonald. Henderson succeeded MacDonald as secretary of the Labour Party, a post he held until shortly before his death. At the start of World War I in August 1914, the Parliamentary Labour Party split. MacDonald resigned as party leader and was succeeded by Henderson. He took Labour into the 1915 coalition, serving as the first Labour cabinet minister. Henderson later served in Lloyd George's war cabinet. He visited Russia in 1917, after the first revolution, and became convinced that the price of keeping Russia in the war was British attendance at a Stockholm conference of international socialists. This led to a breach with Lloyd George and Henderson's resignation from the cabinet. As a result of these experiences, he became an internationalist and converted Labour to the ideas of the League of Nations. After 1918, when Henderson resigned the leadership in favour of MacDonald, he concentrated his efforts into turning Labour into a broad‐ based party. His success was such that MacDonald was able to form the first Labour government in 1924. After its collapse 1931, Henderson once more took on the role of leader of the opposition, this time facing his former colleague MacDonald, who headed a coalition.
Henderson, Neville Meyrick (1882–1942) British diplomat. Henderson is principally remembered for his services as ambassador to Germany from 1937 until September 1939 and thus for his close association with Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement. He worked hard to prevent a breach between Britain and Germany, and his book on the subject, Failure of a Mission (1940), is the story of a bitterly disappointed man with a deep sense of personal failure. He entered the diplomatic service in 1905, and was minister to Egypt (1924–28), France (1928–29) and Yugoslavia (1929–35). He was subsequently ambassador to Argentina and minister to Paraguay (1935–37). His autobiography, The Water under the Bridges, was published in 1945.
Henderson, William Hannam (1845–1931) British admiral. He served under Edmund Fremantle in the punitive expedition against the Sultan of Vitu in East Africa (1890). He was commodore and senior officer in Jamaica during the Cuban War. Henderson was born near Sandwich, Kent, England. A reformer of naval education, who saw the value of systematic instruction
Page331 in strategy and tactics, Henderson derived his appreciation of the importance of this subject from E B Hamley's Operation of War (1867), and he received much encouragement in his efforts from Prince Louis of Battenberg.
Hengist (died c. 488) Legendary leader, with his brother Horsa, of the Jutes, who originated in Jutland and settled in Kent about 450, the first Anglo‐Saxon settlers in Britain.
Henrietta (1644–1670) Daughter of Charles I of England, and wife of the Duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. She was successful in persuading her brother, Charles II, into signing the Treaty of Dover with France in 1670. On her return to France she died suddenly, claiming that she had been poisoned. Henrietta was born in Exeter, England.
Henrietta Maria (1609–1669) Queen of England 1625–49. The daughter of Henry IV of France, she married Charles I of England in 1625. By encouraging him to aid Roman Catholics and make himself an absolute ruler, she became highly unpopular and was exiled 1644–60 during the English Civil War. She returned to England at the Restoration but retired to France in 1665. Henrietta Maria Queen of England 'Queens of England are never drowned.' [Said during a storm at sea February 1642]
Henry, Edward (1850–1931) English commissioner of Metropolitan Police. He entered the Indian civil service and in 1891 was appointed inspector‐general of police in Bengal. In 1901 he was appointed assistant commissioner in London, England, and in 1903 commissioner. His name will be always associated with the perfecting of the fingerprint system of identifying criminals, a system he first worked on in India. He also contributed greatly to the efficiency of the modern CID (Criminal Investigation Department), did much to improve the status and conditions of the police, and inaugurated the Peel Training School.
Henry eight kings of England:
Henry I (1068–1135) King of England from 1100. Youngest son of William the Conqueror, he succeeded his brother William II. He won the support of the Saxons by marrying a Saxon princess, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland. An able administrator, he established a system of travelling judges and a professional bureaucracy, notably the setting up of the Exchequer as a formal government department to deal with the crown's financial matters (the chancellor of the Exchequer is still the government minister in charge of the Treasury in Britain). Henry quarrelled with St Anselm, the
Page332 archbishop of Canterbury, who claimed that the king had no right to invest bishops to vacant sees (diocese of a bishop). For a while, Anselm was forced into exile, but in the end Henry had to concede defeat. Henry's only legitimate son, William, was drowned in 1120, and Henry tried to settle the succession on his daughter Matilda. However, Matilda was unpopular and the throne was taken by Henry's nephew Stephen, who, towards the end of his reign, agreed to adopt Matilda's son Henry (later Henry II) as his heir.
Henry II (1133–1189) King of England from 1154. The son of Matilda and Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou, he succeeded King Stephen (c. 1097– 1154). He brought order to England after the chaos of Stephen's reign, curbing the power of the barons and reforming the legal system. His attempt to bring the church courts under control had to be abandoned after the murder of Thomas à Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1170. The English conquest of Ireland began during Henry's reign. On several occasions his sons rebelled, notably in 1173–74. Henry was succeeded by his son Richard (I) the Lionheart. Henry was lord of Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, and Count of Anjou, Brittany, Poitou, Normandy, Maine, and Gascony. He claimed Aquitaine through marriage to the heiress Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152. Henry's many French possessions caused him to live for more than half his reign outside England. This made it essential for him to establish a judicial and administrative system which would work during his absence. Before his reign, execution of the law was the job of a number of different courts – the shire courts for major offences, the hundred courts for petty crimes, the manor courts for village issues, and the church courts for the clergy. Trials still might involve trial by battle or by ordeal. In 1166 Henry published the Assize of Clarendon, which established regular visits to towns by royal justices 'in eyre' (judges who travelled in circuit to hold court in the different counties) and trial by a 'jury' of 12 men who – unlike in modern courts, where the jury is required to judge the evidence – were called upon to give evidence. Henry's parallel attempt to bring the medieval church courts under royal control, through a collection of decrees known as the Constitutions of Clarendon (1164), had to be dropped after the murder of Becket. Initially Henry's chancellor and friend, Becket was persuaded to become archbishop of Canterbury in 1162 in the hope that he would help the king curb the power of the ecclesiastical courts. However, once consecrated, Becket felt bound to defend church privileges, and he was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170 by four knights of the king's household.
Henry III (1207–1272) King of England from 1216, when he succeeded John, but the royal powers were exercised by a regency until 1232, and by two French nobles, Peter des Roches and Peter des Rivaux, until the barons forced their expulsion in 1234, marking the start of Henry's personal rule. His financial commitments to the papacy and his foreign favourites antagonized the barons who issued the Provisions of Oxford in 1258, limiting the king's power. Henry's refusal to accept the provisions led to the second Barons' War in 1264, a revolt of nobles led by his brother‐in‐law Simon de Montfort. Henry was defeated at Lewes, Sussex, and imprisoned, but restored to the throne after the royalist victory at Evesham in 1265. He was succeeded by his son Edward I. On his release Henry was weak and senile and his eldest son, Edward, took charge of the government.
Page333 Henry III King of England 'I fear thunder and lightning exceedingly but ... I fear thee more than all the thunder and lightning in the world.' [To Simon de Montfort, July 1258, quoted in Matthew Paris Chronica Majora H R Luard (ed) Rolls Series 1872–1883 vol. v]
Henry IV (1367–1413) (born Henry Bolingbroke) King of England from 1399, the son of John of Gaunt. In 1398 he was banished by Richard II but returned in 1399 to head a revolt and be accepted as king by Parliament. He was succeeded by his son Henry V. He had difficulty in keeping the support of Parliament and the clergy, and had to deal with baronial unrest and Owen Glendower's rising in Wales. In order to win support he had to conciliate the Church by a law for the burning of heretics, and to make many concessions to Parliament. The Percy family was defeated at Shrewsbury in 1403, and the Earl of Northumberland was beaten at Bramham Moor in 1408.
Henry V (1387–1422) King of England from 1413, son of Henry IV. Invading Normandy in 1415 (during the Hundred Years' War), he captured Harfleur and defeated the French at Agincourt. He invaded again in 1417–19, capturing Rouen. His military victory forced the French into the Treaty of Troyes in 1420, which gave Henry control of the French government. He married Catherine of Valois in 1420 and gained recognition as heir to the French throne by his father‐in‐law Charles VI, but died before him. He was succeeded by his son Henry VI. Henry was knighted at the age of 12 by Richard II on his Irish expedition of 1399, and experienced war early. He was wounded in the face by an arrow while fighting against his military tutor Harry 'Hotspur' at Shrewsbury. Campaigns in Wales against Owen Glendower taught him the realities of siege warfare. He was succeeded by his son Henry VI.
Page334 Henry V
(Image © Philip Sauvain Picture Collection)
Page335 Henry V of England had a reputation as a stern but just ruler. Most of his reign was taken up by war with the French and such was his success that by 1420 he was recognized as the heir to the reigning French monarch, Charles VI, whose daughter he married. John Bowle English historian 'Henry V was not the bluff patriot king of Shakespeare's plays; he was a dour and martial fanatic, obsessed by religion and his legal rights.' [England: A Portrait] Henry V King of England 'I shall play such a ball game with the French in their own courtyards, that they will in the end ... win grief instead of the game.' [To ambassadors returning from France with an insulting gift of tennis balls, 1414] Henry V King of England 'Everyone knows I act in everything with kindness and mercy, for I am forcing Rouen into submission by starvation, not by fire, sword or bloodshed.' [To a delegation from Rouen during the siege of 1415] Henry V King of England 'You speak like a fool ... Do you not believe that God, with this small force of men on his side, can conquer the hostile arrogance of the French, who pride themselves on their numbers and their strength?' [Attributed remark before the Battle of Agincourt, on being asked if he needed more soldiers]
Henry VI (1421–1471) King of England from 1422, son of Henry V. He assumed royal power
Page336 in 1442 and sided with the party opposed to the continuation of the Hundred Years' War with France. After his marriage in 1445, he was dominated by his wife, Margaret of Anjou. He was deposed in 1461 during the Wars of the Roses, was captured in 1465, temporarily restored in 1470, but again imprisoned in 1471 and then murdered. Henry was eight months old when he succeeded to the English throne, and shortly afterwards, by the death in 1422 of his maternal grandfather, Charles VI, he became titular king of France. Unlike his father, Henry was disinclined to warfare, and when Joan of Arc revived French patriotism the English gradually began to lose their French possessions. By 1453 only Calais remained of his father's conquests. The unpopularity of the government, especially after the loss of the English conquests in France, encouraged Richard, Duke of York, to claim the throne, and though York was killed in 1460, his son Edward IV proclaimed himself king in 1461.
Henry VII (1457–1509) King of England from 1485, when he overthrew Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth. A descendant of John of Gaunt, Henry, by his marriage to Elizabeth of York in 1486, united the houses of York and Lancaster. Yorkist revolts continued until 1497, but Henry restored order after the Wars of the Roses by the Star Chamber and achieved independence from Parliament by amassing a private fortune through confiscations. He was succeeded by his son Henry VIII. Born in Pembroke, Wales, the son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond (c. 1430–1456), Henry lived in Brittany, France, from 1471 to 1485, when he landed in Britain to lead the rebellion against Richard III. Henry succeeded in crushing the independence of the nobility by means of a policy of forced loans and fines. His chancellor, Cardinal Morton, was made responsible for the collection of these fines, and they were enforced by the privy councillors Empson and Dudley. This form of taxation became known as Morton's Fork, the dilemma being that, if a subject liable for taxation lived an extravagant lifestyle, obviously they could afford to pay the fine; if they lived austerely they should have sufficient funds saved with which to pay. To further curb the pretensions of the nobility, there were no unions of his children with the baronage. He married his son Arthur to Catherine of Aragón, daughter of the joint sovereigns of Spain, his daughter Margaret to James IV of Scotland, and his youngest daughter Mary to Louis XII of France. Henry VII King of England 'The kings, my predecessors, weakening their treasure, have made themselves servants to their subjects.' [To Henry Wyatt, one of his councillors and father of the poet Sir Thomas Wyatt]
Henry VIII (1491–1547) King of England from 1509, when he succeeded his father Henry VII and married Catherine of Aragón, the widow of his brother. During the period 1513–29 Henry pursued an active foreign policy, largely under the guidance of his lord chancellor, Cardinal Wolsey, who shared Henry's desire to make England stronger. Wolsey was replaced by Thomas More in 1529 after failing to persuade the pope to grant Henry a divorce. After 1532
Page337 Henry broke with papal authority, proclaimed himself head of the church in England, dissolved the monasteries, and divorced Catherine. His subsequent wives were Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr. He was succeeded by his son Edward VI. Henry VIII King of England 'My Lord, if it were not to satisfy the world, and my Realm, I would not do that I must do this day for none earthly thing.' [Remark to Thomas Cromwell, on the day of his wedding to Anne of Cleves, 5 January 1540] Henry VIII King of England 'My book maketh substantially for my matter; in looking whereof I have spent above IV hours this day, which caused me now to write the shorter letter to you ... because of some pain in my head, wishing myself ... in my sweetheart's arms, whose pretty dukkys I trust shortly to kiss.' [Letter to Anne Boleyn, August 1528. The book argued that his marriage to Catherine of Aragon was void] Henry VIII King of England 'We are, by the sufferance of God, King of England; and the Kings of England in times past never had any superior but God.' [Attributed remark, to Cardinal Wolsey 1515] Henry VIII King of England 'You have sent me a Flanders mare.' [Attributed remark on seeing Anne of Cleves for the first time] Thomas Wolsey English cleric and politician 'He is a prince of royal courage and hath a princely heart; and rather than he will miss or want part of his appetite, he will hazard the loss of one‐half of his kingdom.'
Page338 [Referring to Henry VIII]
Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales (1594–1612) Eldest son of James I of England and Anne of Denmark; a keen patron of Italian art.
Henry, the Young King (1155–1183) Eldest son of Henry II, he was crowned 1170 as his father's successor and associate while his father was still king, in line with continental custom to avoid a disputed succession. However, it only succeeded in making the young Henry, incited by his mother Eleanor of Aquitaine, impatient for the power he regarded as rightfully his and he joined the baronial revolt against his father 1173–74. He was reconciled with his father 1174, but joined his brother Geoffrey in a subsequent rebellion during which he died.
heptarchy the seven Saxon kingdoms thought to have existed in England before Sussex, and Wessex. The term was coined by 16th‐century historians.
AD
800: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent,
Herbert, A(lan) P(atrick) (1890–1971) English politician and writer. He was an Independent member of Parliament for Oxford University 1935–50, author of several novels, including The Water Gipsies (1930), and a contributor to the humorous magazine Punch. Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'Holy Deadlock.' [Title of novel] Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'Let's find out what everyone is doing, / And then stop everyone from doing it.' ['Let's Stop Somebody']
Page339 Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'Let's stop somebody from doing something!' [Let's Stop Somebody] Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'Other people's babies – / That's my life! / Mother to dozens, / And nobody's wife.' ['Other People's Babies'] Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'The Common Law of England has been laboriously built about a mythical figure – the figure of 'The Reasonable Man'.' ['The Reasonable Man'] Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'The concept of two people living together for 25 years without having a cross word suggests a lack of spirit only to be admired in sheep.' [Quoted in News Chronicle 1940] Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'The critical period in matrimony is breakfast‐time.' ['Is Marriage Lawful?']
Page340 Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'This high official, all allow, / Is grossly overpaid. / There wasn't any Board; and now / There isn't any trade.' ['The President of the Board of Trade'] Alan Patrick Herbert English writer and politician 'Well, fancy giving money to the Government! / Might as well have put it down the drain. / Fancy giving money to the Government! / Nobody will see the stuff again.' ['Too Much!']
Herbert, Sidney (1810–1861) (1st Baron Herbert of Lea) British politician. He was secretary for war in Aberdeen's Liberal‐Peelite coalition of 1852–55, and during the Crimean War was responsible for sending Florence Nightingale to the front. Baron 1860.
Hereward the Wake (lived 11th century) legendary Saxon hero of the English resistance to the Normans in 1070. Helped by a Danish army, the rebels attacked and sacked Peterborough Abbey. William bribed the Danes to return home, but Hereward continued the revolt. His stronghold in the Isle of Ely was captured in 1071 by William (I) the Conqueror during the Siege of Ely. Although his actual fate is unkown, legends grew up about him, and he has remained a hero of fiction. Hereward had been outlawed by Edward the Confessor in 1062, and returned home after 1066 to find his father dead, his brother murdered, and the Norman lord Peter de Bourne in possession. Hereward killed him in revenge and led 40 men to the last English strongpoint at the abbey of Ely. When William the Conqueror took the island in 1071, Hereward retreated into the forest.
Herries, John Maxwell (c. 1512–1583) Scottish politician. In early life he was a supporter of the Reformed party and a friend of the leading Scottish Protestant reformer John Knox, but in 1566 he cast in his lot with Mary Queen of Scots and joined her at Dunbar. He led her cavalry at Langside, and rode with her into England in 1568. On his return to Scotland he worked for Mary's cause and was imprisoned by the Regent of Scotland, James Stuart Murray. In 1578 he was involved in the plot to deprive James Douglas Morton of the Scottish regency, and after Morton's death in 1581 was closely allied with the Regent Lennox in his schemes for Mary's release.
Herzog, Chaim (1918–1997) Irish‐Israeli soldier, lawyer, writer, politician, and president of Israel (1983–93). He served as Israel's ambassador and permanent representative to the United Nations between 1975–78. Returning to Israel, he joined the Labour Party and was elected to the Knesset in 1981. His public standing made him an obvious choice for the presidency in 1983. He studied law in Britain and Israel, and in World War II served in the British army as a tank commander. He disagreed with
Page341 British rule in Palestine and joined an underground movement opposing it. In 1947, at the age of 29, he was given the task of organizing the intelligence service of the fledgling Israeli army, becoming its first head (1954–62). He was then appointed commander of the Israeli Defence Forces in East Jerusalem, occupying the crucial border with Egypt, with the rank of major‐general. He retired from the army in 1962, while still only in his forties, and launched himself into a business career, becoming, between 1962–83, a director of Israel Aircraft Industries, the Industrial Development Bank of Israel, the Israel Discount Bank, and managing director of GUS International. During the 'Six‐Day War' between Israel and Egypt in 1967, Herzog became famous for his reassuring radio broadcasts to the Israeli people at a time when the country felt isloated.; after its successful outcome, he was made military governor of the West Bank.
Heseltine, Michael (Ray Dibdin) (1933–) British Conservative politician, deputy prime minister 1995–97. A member of Parliament from 1966 (for Tavistock 1966–74 and for Henley from 1974), he was secretary of state for the environment 1990–92 and for trade and industry 1992–95. Heseltine was born in Swansea, south Wales, and was educated at Shrewsbury School and Oxford University. He was minister of the environment 1979–83, when he succeeded John Nott, and minister of defence from 1982 to January 1986, when he resigned over the Westland affair and was then seen as a major rival to Margaret Thatcher. In November 1990, Heseltine's challenge to Thatcher's leadership of the party brought about her resignation. After the Conservatives' defeat in 1997, he announced that he would not contest the party's vacant leadership because of heart problems but has continued to make known his views on European issues. He announced in April 2000 that he would step down from parliament at the next election. Michael Heseltine English Conservative politician 'You cannot call an ecu a pound in Britain. A single currency does not need a single name, but it does need a single value.' [The Times, November 1990]
Hewart of Bury, John Gordon Hewart, 1st Baron Hewart of Bury (1870–1943) English lawyer and politician. After working on the Manchester Guardian, he was called to the Bar in 1902 and became a KC (King's Counsel) in 1912. In 1913 Hewart was elected Liberal member of Parliament for Leicester. He was solicitor‐general (1916–19) and then attorney‐general (1921–22). Hewart was a member of the Irish Conference and one of the British signatories of the Irish peace treaty. In 1922 he became Lord Chief Justice. Hewart was born in Bury, Lancashire, and was educated at Bury and Manchester Grammar Schools and at University College, Oxford. In 1929 he published The New Despotism, in which he attacked the delegation of legislative powers by Parliament to ministers.
Page342 hide (or hyde) Anglo‐Saxon unit of measurement used to measure the extent of arable land; it varied from about 296 ha/120 acres in the east of England to as little as 99 ha/40 acres in Wessex. One hide was regarded as sufficient to support a peasant and his household; it was the area that could be ploughed in a season by one plough and one team of oxen. The hide was the basic unit of assessment for taxation and military service; under Norman rule it became the basis for the feudal tax of hidage.
Higden, Ranulf (died 1364) English chronicler. He was a Benedictine monk at St Werburgh's monastery in Chester, England. His great work was a general history of the world from the Creation down to his own time, entitled Polychronicon. This was printed by William Caxton in 1482. It was edited, with a translation, in the Rolls Series (1865–86).
High Commission in England, ecclesiastical court established under the Royal Supremacy in the provinces of York and Canterbury following Henry VIII's break with Rome 1534. It dealt primarily with offences against the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity and from the 1590s was used to root out extreme Puritanism and later to assist the Arminians. Both Puritans and lawyers protested against its arbitrary abuse of procedure and the court became increasingly discredited until it was eventually abolished 1641 after the Stuarts had used it to enforce the royal prerogative.
high constable in England from the reign of Henry VII (1485–1509), an officer appointed to keep the peace in a hundred. High constables were chosen at the court‐leets (court session of lord of the manor) of the hundred over which they presided.
Highland Clearances forced removal of tenants from large estates in Scotland during the early 19th century, as landowners 'improved' their estates by switching from arable to sheep farming. It led ultimately to widespread emigration to North America.
Highland Host force of highlanders brought into southwest Scotland in 1678 to suppress Scottish Covenanters by the Earl of Lauderdale. For two months the host engaged in pillage and confiscation of lands until their brutality and their local unpopularity led to their being withdrawn. In some ways, they increased public sympathy for the Covenanters as many regarded them as Lowland Protestants being persecuted by Highlanders, even though up to a third of the Host were themselves Lowlanders. Lauderdale himself was a staunch supporter of Charles II, though he had himself been a Covenanter and had signed the Engagement with Charles I.
highwayman in English history, a thief on horseback who robbed travellers on the highway (those who did so on foot were known as footpads). With the development of regular coach services in the 17th and 18th centuries, the highwaymen's activities became notorious, and the Bow Street Runners were organized to suppress them. Highwaymen continued to flourish well into the 19th century.
Page343 Hill, (John Edward) Christopher (1912–) British historian. He employed a traditionally Marxist approach to 17th‐century English history, although this was less marked in his later work. His publications include The English Revolution, 1640 (1940), The Century of Revolution (1961), and Antichrist in Seventeenth‐century England (1971). Hill was educated in England at St Peter's School, York, and Balliol College, Oxford Univeristy. He became a fellow of All Souls, Oxford University, in 1934. From 1938–65 he was fellow and tutor in modern history at Balliol and became master of Balliol in 1965. Among his other works are Puritanism and Revolution (1958), Society and Puritanism in Pre‐Revolutionary England (1964), Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution (1965), Reformation to Industrial Revolution (1967), God's Englishman (1970), Oliver Cromwell (1958), and The World Turned Upside Down (1972).
Hill, Austin Bradford (1897–1991) English epidemiologist and statistician. He pioneered rigorous statistical study of patterns of disease and, together with Richard Doll, was the first to demonstrate the connection between cigarette smoking and lung cancer. Knighted 1961.
Hill, Rowland, 1st Viscount Hill (1772–1842) English general. He commanded the 90th Regiment in Abercromby's Egyptian expedition in 1801 and served throughout the Peninsular War. He captured the forts of Almarez, for which he was made a baron in 1814. He distinguished himself at the battle of Waterloo. Promoted to general in 1825, he succeeded the duke of Wellington in 1828 as commander‐ in‐chief. He was made a viscount in 1842. Hill was born in Prees Hall, near Hawkstone, England.
hill figure in Britain, any of a number of figures, usually of animals, cut from the turf to reveal the underlying chalk. Their origins are variously attributed to Celts, Romans, Saxons, Druids, or Benedictine monks, although most are of modern rather than ancient construction. Examples include 17 White Horses, and giants such as the Cerne Abbas Giant, near Dorchester, Dorset, associated with a prehistoric fertility cult. Nearly 50 hill figures are known in Britain, of which all but four are on the southern chalk downs of England. Some are landmarks or memorials; others have a religious or ritual purpose. It is possible that the current figures are on the site of, or reinforce, previous ones. There may have been large numbers of figures dotted on the landscape in the Iron Age, which were not maintained. The White Horse at Uffington, on the Berkshire Downs, used to be annually 'scoured' in a folk ceremony. Other hill‐figure designs include the Long Man of Wilmington on Windover Hill, East Sussex; crosses, such as the Bledlow and Whiteleaf crosses on the Chiltern Hills; a collection of military badges made at Fovant Down, Wiltshire (1916); an aeroplane, and a crown. A stag at Mormond Hill, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, is cut into white quartz.
Page344 Long Man of Wilmington
(Image © Corel)
Page345 The Long Man of Wilmington, on Windover Hill, East Sussex, England.
Hillsborough Agreement another name for the Anglo‐Irish Agreement (1985).
Hindley, Myra (1942–2002) British murderer who, with Ian Brady, was found guilty of the murder of two children and a 17‐year‐old youth between 1963 and 1965. They were known as 'the Moors Murderers' because they buried most of their victims on Saddleworth Moor in the Pennines, England. They abducted and sexually abused the children before killing them. Hindley was imprisoned in 1966 for a recommended minimum of 25 years. She conducted a high‐profile campaign for her release.
Hobbes, Thomas (1588–1679) English political philosopher and the first thinker since Aristotle to attempt to develop a comprehensive theory of nature, including human behaviour. In Leviathan (1651), he advocates absolutist government as the only means of ensuring order and security; he saw this as deriving from the social contract. Thomas Hobbes English political philosopher 'I am about to take my last voyage, a great leap in the dark.' [Last words, quoted in Watkins Anecdotes of Men of Learning] Thomas Hobbes English political philosopher 'No arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear and danger of violent death; and the life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.' [Leviathan pt 1, ch. 13] Thomas Hobbes English political philosopher 'The Papacy is not other than the Ghost of the deceased Roman Empire, sitting crowned upon the grave thereof.'
Page346 [Leviathan pt 4, ch. 47] Thomas Hobbes English political philosopher 'They that approve a private opinion, call it opinion; but they that mislike it, heresy: and yet heresy signifies no more than private opinion.' [Leviathan pt 1, ch. 11]
Hobhouse, John Cam, Baron Broughton (1786–1869) British statesman. He began his political career in 1820 as Radical member of Parliament for Westminster, having been already imprisoned in Newgate for a satirical pamphlet published anonymously. Hobhouse is traditionally said to have been the first to use the phrase 'His (Her) Majesty's Opposition'. He was made a peer in 1851. He was educated at Westminster School and at Trinity College, Cambridge University. His friendship with the English poet George Byron began in his undergraduate days and endured until the latter's death.
Hoby, Sir Thomas (1530–1566) English diplomat and translator. Born in Leominster, Hoby went to Cambridge before undertaking extensive travels on the Continent. An expert linguist, he was knighted and sent as ambassador to France in 1566, but died in Paris a few months later. During an earlier stay in Paris (1552–53), Hoby translated Baldassare Castiglione's Il cortegiano/The Courtier, eventually printed in 1561; it proved popular and was several times reprinted. Hoby's wife Elizabeth Hoby (1528–1609) was also a skilled linguist.
Hogg, Quintin British politician; see Lord Hailsham.
Holinshed (or Hollingshead), Raphael (c. 1520–c. 1580) English historian. He published two volumes of the Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1578), which are a mixture of fact and legend. The Chronicles were used as a principal source by Elizabethan dramatists for their plots. Nearly all Shakespeare's English history plays, as well as Macbeth, King Lear, and Cymbeline, are based on Holinshed's work. Ralph Holinshed English historian 'Times change, and we change with them.'
Page347 [Chronicles of England Fo 996]
Holland, Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland (1705–1774) English statesman. He entered Parliament in 1738, becoming a partisan of Robert Walpole. In 1743 he became a lord of the Treasury, and three years later was promoted to the office of secretary‐at‐war, in which position he remained until 1755, when he was appointed secretary of state. He resigned in the following year, but in 1757 became paymaster‐general of the forces, and in this lucrative office he amassed a vast fortune. Holland was born in Chiswick, London, England. He was educated at Eton School. He took no active part in politics after 1763, when he was created a peer.
Holland, Henry Richard Vassall Fox, 3rd Baron Holland (1773–1840) British Whig politician. He was Lord Privy Seal 1806–07. His home, at Holland House, London, was for many years the centre of Whig political and literary society. Baron 1796. Henry Richard Vassall Fox Holland British Whig politician 'Nephew of Fox, and friend of Grey, / Enough my need of fame / If those who deigned to observe me say / I injured neither name.' [Lines found in Holland's handwriting on his dressing‐table after his death 1840]
Holles of Ifield, Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles of Ifield (1599–1680) English statesman. He first entered Parliament in 1624, where he opposed the foreign policy of the Duke of Buckingham, and was one of the five members who held the Speaker in his chair while John Eliot's protestations were passed in 1629. After the outbreak of the Civil War, Holles fought at the battles of Edgehill and Brentford, but his belief that a settlement should be negotiated with Charles I and his Presbyterian principles soon made him lose favour with Oliver Cromwell. He fled to France in 1649, returning in 1659 at the invitation of Monck. He went to the Hague to invite Charles II to return to England in 1660, and was made a peer the following year, but gradually moved into opposition to Charles, owing to his own convinced political and religious sympathies.
Hollis, Roger Henry (1905–1973) British civil servant, head of the secret intelligence service MI5 1956–65. He was alleged to have been a double agent together with Kim Philby, but this was denied by the KGB in 1991. Knighted 1960.
Holloway, Stanley (1890–1982) English entertainer. An original member of The Co‐Optimists revue group 1921–30, his hearty, down‐to‐ earth manner and booming tones made him a genial comedy actor in Ealing film classics like Passport to Pimlico (1948), The Lavender Hill Mob (1951), and The Titfield
Page348 Thunderbolt (1952). He created Alfred Doolittle in My Fair Lady on Broadway (1956–58) and on film in 1964. Popular on radio and in pantomime, he created the monologue characters of Sam Small and the Ramsbottom family. He also had his own television series, Our Man Higgins (1962). His autobiography, Wiv a Little Bit of Luck, was published in 1969.
Holyoake, George Jacob (1817–1906) British agitator and Chartist (see Chartism). Having decided that the evidences of Christianity were insufficient, he made remarks in public for which he was charged with blasphemy and imprisoned for six months. Subsequently his energies were mainly devoted to social reform and the advocacy of cooperation. He wrote A History of Cooperation in England (1875), in addition to biographies of Tom Paine, Richard Carlisle, Robert Owen, and John Stuart Mill, and several controversial pamphlets.
homage in Britain, feudal ceremony symbolizing the submission of a tenant to his lord. The lord would take the clasped hands of a kneeling man, and kisses might be exchanged as a sign of friendship. The ceremony formed a mutual bond: while the man was bound to serve the lord, in return the lord guaranteed his protection. The ceremony could be used in a broader context, as for example, the Scottish king Malcolm III paying homage to Henry II of England to indicate his acceptance of Henry's rule.
Home, Alec Douglas‐ British Conservative politician. See Douglas‐Home.
home front organized sectors of domestic activity in wartime, mainly associated with World Wars I and II. Features of the UK home front in World War I included greater government control over industry, the introduction of British summer time, and the introduction of women into jobs previously undertaken only by men as many were on active military service. In World War II measures on the UK home front included the organization of the black‐out, evacuation, air‐raid shelters, the Home Guard, rationing, and the distribution of gas masks. Lena Ford English poet 'Keep the home fires burning.' [Poem title]
home front, World War I organization of the UK civilian population by the British government to meet the war effort in World War I. Laws were passed extending government control over new areas. The Defence of the Realm Act (1914) introduced censorship over the news in order to maintain morale and
Page349 facilitate propaganda. Government control was extended over manufacturing output. Drinking was restricted by law, and food conservation encouraged, although rationing was not introduced until 1918. World War I had a greater impact on the entire UK population than any previous war, and social changes, such as the use of women in men's traditional employment, had a lasting effect after the war.
home front, World War II mobilization of all sectors of the UK economy and population by the British government to support the war effort in World War II. There was no escape on the home front from involvement in or experience of the war. Civilians suffered more than in World War I, particularly those living in cities bombed by the German Luftwaffe during the Battle of Britain (1940) and the Blitz (1940– 41). Evacuation, gas masks, Anderson shelters, rationing, and the Home Guard were ever‐present features of life on the home front.
Home Guard unpaid force formed in Britain in May 1940 to repel the expected German invasion, and known until July 1940 as the Local Defence Volunteers. It consisted of men aged 17–65 who had not been called up, formed part of the armed forces of the Crown, and was subject to military law. Over 2 million strong in 1944, it was disbanded on 31 December 1945, but revived in 1951, then placed on a reserve basis in 1955. It ceased activity in 1957. Its members worked at their normal occupations and undertook military training in their spare time. In 1940 they were armed with a motley collection of shotguns and privately‐owned weapons, but by 1942 they were a well‐trained body liberally provided with automatic weapons and light artillery.
Page350 Home Guard
(Image © Billie Love)
Page351 The 4th Battalion of the Kentish Home Guard, in 1945, which had an average strength of 1,500 volunteers. Known at first as the Local Defence Volunteers, the British Home Guard grew to about 2 million volunteers who received basic training and some weapons to defend their home areas against the threat of invasion. Part‐time service was eventually made compulsory for certain categories of civilians.
home rule, Irish movement to repeal the Act of Union of 1801 that joined Ireland to Britain, and to establish an Irish parliament responsible for internal affairs. In 1870 Isaac Butt formed the Home Rule Association and the movement was led in Parliament from 1880 by Charles Stewart Parnell. After 1918 the demand for an independent Irish republic replaced that for home rule. The British prime minister William Gladstone's home rule bills of 1886 and 1893 were both defeated. A third bill was introduced by the Liberals in 1912, which aroused opposition in Ireland where the Protestant minority in Ulster feared domination by the Catholic majority. Ireland appeared on the brink of civil war but the outbreak of World War I rendered further consideration of home rule inopportune. In 1920 the Government of Ireland Act introduced separate parliaments in the North and South and led to the treaty of 1921 that established the Irish Free State. Ireland: Home Rule 1868–1918 introduction Ireland in the 19th century was beset by political, economic, and religious discontents. The 1801 Act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland failed to incorporate Ireland into the British political system. Despite the achievement of Catholic Emancipation in 1829, Catholics remained economically disadvantaged. Ireland had not industrialized (except in the north‐east around Belfast); its land system was seen as inefficient and unjust; and after the Great Famine of 1845–49 its population went into long‐term decline. Such circumstances encouraged the formation of nationalist movements, mainly supported by Catholics. Some movements, such as the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) founded in 1858, sought self‐government by the use of force. Others sought limited self‐government through peaceful agitation; the most influential of these was the Home Rule party. Home Rule and the rise of Parnell In 1868 Liberal prime minister William Gladstone, determined to 'pacify Ireland'. He disestablished the (Protestant) Church of Ireland and gave certain rights to tenant farmers, but this failed to meet Irish expectations. In 1870 the Protestant Isaac Butt founded the Home Rule League, which campaigned for a devolved Irish parliament. The Home Rule party won 61 of 103 seats in the 1874 general election, but found itself isolated in the Westminster Parliament. From 1877 Butt was challenged by a group of MPs who systematically obstructed British legislation in protest at the neglect of Irish affairs. The most prominent of these was the Protestant landowner Charles Stewart Parnell. By 1880 he had taken the leadership of the Irish party and become president of a new tenants' rights association, the Land League.
Page352 In some places land agitation was accompanied by violence. Gladstone responded with new concessions in the 1881 Land Act, but suppressed the Land League and imprisoned its leaders, including Parnell. The latter was released on the understanding that he would help to pacify Ireland. The Chief Secretary for Ireland resigned in protest at this 'Kilmainham Treaty', and his successor, Lord Frederick Cavendish, was assassinated in Phoenix Park by a fringe nationalist group, the Invincibles. The assassination temporarily dashed Parnell's hopes of further cooperation with Gladstone on Home Rule. However, in the 1885 election the Irish Party won 86 seats, giving them the balance of power between Liberals and Conservatives. Gladstone, who had become sympathetic to Home Rule, now endorsed it. He took office with Irish support in 1886 and introduced a Home Rule Bill, but it was defeated by the Conservatives and a defecting group of Liberal Unionists. At the subsequent election the Conservatives and Liberal Unionists won a comfortable majority. the fall of Parnell and the eclipse of Home Rule In 1890 Parnell's political aspirations were shattered when his affair with Mrs O'Shea became public knowledge. Catholic Ireland and many of Gladstone's English Protestant supporters were scandalized. Gladstone announced that he would resign if Parnell remained as Irish Party leader. A majority of the Irish Party voted to depose Parnell. He refused to accept this and the Home Rule movement split into Parnellite and anti‐Parnellite factions. Parnell died, worn out, in Oct 1891. Gladstone returned to power in 1892 and passed the second Home Rule Bill through the House of Commons, but it was thrown out by the House of Lords. The Unionists returned to power in 1895. The Irish Party reunited under John Redmond in 1900, but was still weakened by personal rivalries. In 1906 the Liberals returned to power, but made only limited concessions to Nationalists. The Parnell split encouraged interest in new forms of nationalism. In 1893 the Gaelic League, aimed at reviving the Irish language, was founded. More significantly, from around 1900, separatism revived. In 1905 Arthur Griffith founded Sinn Fein, which advocated a fully independent Irish Parliament with the British monarch as head of state, as a compromise between Home Rule and separatism. Some Sinn Feiners advocated a fully independent republic. the Third Home Rule Bill and the Ulster Crisis The 1910 new elections gave Redmond the balance of power. In 1912, after constitutional changes had curbed the power of the House of Lords, Asquith's Liberal government introduced a third Home Rule Bill, scheduled to come into force by 1914. Ulster Unionists threatened to resist it by force, and from 1912 organized a private army, the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). Negotiations took place to discuss the option of the Protestant north‐east seceding from a future Irish state, but broke down over the extent of the area to be excluded. In 1913, nationalists set up the Irish Volunteers as a counterweight to the UVF. Sectarian tensions mounted, fed on the nationalist side by a perception that the government was lukewarm on Home Rule. Civil war in Ireland seemed inevitable. war and revolution When World War I broke out Redmond pledged Irish support for the British war effort in return for the passage of Home Rule into law, suspended for the duration of the war. This split the Irish Volunteers; the majority, calling themselves 'National Volunteers', went with Redmond, leaving a minority of 'Irish Volunteers' who argued that Britain rather than Germany was the main threat to Irish liberties. At Easter 1916 a section of the Irish Volunteers and the left‐wing Citizen Army staged a rebellion in Dublin. The suppression of this 'Easter Rising' and the execution of 16 of its leaders led to a reaction in favour of separatism. From 1917 the Irish
Page353 Party lost support to a reorganized Sinn Fein under Éamon de Valera, a suvivor of the 1916 rising. In the Dec 1918 general election the Home Rule party was virtually wiped out, taking 6 seats to Sinn Fein's 73 and the Unionists' 26. The Sinn Fein deputies set up their own parliament, Dáil Éireann. The Volunteers, now calling themselves the 'Irish Republican Army' (IRA), intimidated government sympathizers and launched guerrilla attacks on crown forces and government agents. The government responded with indiscriminate repression often carried out by militarized police recruits from Britain (the 'Black and Tans'). the Anglo‐Irish Treaty In 1920 the government passed the Government of Ireland Act, which set up two Home Rule parliaments: one in Belfast (for the six north‐ eastern counties) and one in Dublin. The Dublin parliament was stillborn as only Sinn Feiners contested the election, but the Northern one was opened in May 1921. Soon afterwards a truce was called and negotiations began between the British government and Sinn Fein. In Dec 1921 the Irish negotiators, led by Griffith and the dynamic IRB president Michael Collins, signed a treaty that gave Ireland Dominion status under the Crown. The Anglo‐Irish Treaty divided Sinn Fein. Collins, Griffith, and their supporters saw the Treaty as the best deal possible under the circumstances; others, led by de Valera (who had not attended the Treaty negotiations), saw partition and Dominion status as a betrayal of the ideal of a fully independent 32‐county republic. A majority of the inhabitants of the new state endorsed the Treaty in an election in 1922, but this was followed by a year‐long civil war, eventually won by the pro‐Treaty side, which embittered Irish life for a generation. During the war Griffith died of exhaustion and Collins was shot. Remaining supporters of the old Home Rule party were absorbed into the pro‐Treaty party, now led by William Cosgrave, first prime minister of the Irish Free State. George Bernard Shaw Irish dramatist 'A healthy nation is as unconscious of its nationality as a healthy man of his bones. But if you break a nation's nationality it will think of nothing else but getting it set again. It will listen to no reformer, to no philosopher, to no preacher, until the demand of the nationalist is granted.' ['Preface for Politicians' in Prefaces (1934, revised 1938).]
Homildon Hill, Battle of battle fought 2 km/1 mi west of Wooler, in Northumberland, England on 14 September 1402. A force commanded by Henry 'Hotspur' Percy and the Earl of March defeated a Scots raiding party led by the Earl of Douglas.
Hood, Samuel (1762–1814) British vice‐admiral. He joined the navy in 1776, and from that year until his death was on active service almost without remission. He took part in the action off the French island of Ushant in 1778. After two years' service in the West Indies, he commanded the Zealous at the battle of the Nile in 1797. In 1802, having been promoted to commodore, he virtually drove the French out of the West Indies, and in 1805 seized four French frigates near Rochefort, but his action cost him an arm. Commander of the Centaur in 1808, he was
Page354 publicly decorated by the king of Sweden for his brilliant seizure of the Russian gunship Sewolod. Useful reforms followed his promotion to commander‐in‐chief of the East Indies in 1812.
Hore‐Belisha, (Isaac) Leslie (1893–1957) (1st Baron Hore‐Belisha) British politician. A National Liberal, he was minister of transport 1934– 37, introducing a number of traffic reforms including the introduction of a driving test for motorists, traffic lights, and Belisha beacons to mark pedestrian crossings. He was war minister from 1937, until removed by Chamberlain in 1940 on grounds of temperament, and introduced peacetime conscription in 1939.
Hornby v. Close UK court case in 1867 in which it was decided that trade unions were illegal associations. The decision, overturned two years later by a special act of Parliament, indirectly led to the full legalization of trade unions under the Trade Union Acts 1871–76.
Horne, Henry Sinclair (1861–1929) (Baron Horne of Stirkoke) British general, the only artillery officer to command a field army in World War I. He was responsible for many of the technical and tactical improvements in artillery, including the perfection of the creeping barrage.
Horsa Anglo‐Saxon leader, brother of Hengist.
Horton, Max Kennedy (1883–1951) British admiral and submarine specialist in World War II. In 1942 he became commander‐in‐chief on the Western Approaches, responsible for convoys crossing the Atlantic. He rapidly made his mark, adopting a variety of measures and tactics to neutralize the U‐boat threat and eventually gained the upper hand. He remained in this post until the war ended.
Hoste, William (1780–1828) British naval captain. He entered the navy at the age of 13, and was on board the Agamemnon under the express care of Capt Horatio Nelson. He saw service in all parts of the Mediterranean, and ultimately took Cattaro and Ragusa. He was a brilliant commander, and an ardent disciple of Nelson. Hoste was born in Ingoldisthorpe, Norfolk, England.
houscarl 11th‐century military fraternity used by the Danish kings of England as a form of bodyguard and standing army. The system was introduced by King Canute 1016 and was initially paid for by the heregeld ('army tax'), although from 1051 they no longer received direct payment but were instead given grants of land, in return for which they would fight when summoned.
houses of correction In England, early workhouses set up under the poor laws of 1576 and 1597 as a response to rising population and unemployment. A house of correction was set up in each county and major town, ostensibly to house the indigent and punish the work‐shy but they soon became little more than prisons for petty criminals.
Howard, Catherine (c. 1520–1542) Queen consort of Henry
Page355 VIII of England from 1540. In 1541 the archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, accused her of being unchaste before marriage to Henry and she was beheaded in 1542 after Cranmer made further charges of adultery. Catherine Howard Queen consort of Henry VIII of England 'I die a Queen, but I would rather die the wife of Culpeper.' [Last words at her execution, 1542]
Howard, Constance (1919–2000) English embroiderer, artist, and teacher. She helped to revive creative craftwork after World War II. Her work includes framed pictures with fabrics outlined in bold black threads, wall hangings, and geometric studies in strong colour, and can be found in England at Northampton Art Gallery, Lincoln Cathedral, Eton College, and the Victoria and Albert Museum. She was appointed MBE in 1975.
Howe, (Richard Edward) Geoffrey (1926–) (Baron Howe of Aberavon) British Conservative politician, member of Parliament for Surrey East. As chancellor of the Exchequer 1979–83 under Margaret Thatcher, he put into practice the monetarist policy that reduced inflation at the cost of a rise in unemployment. In 1983 he became foreign secretary, and in 1989 deputy prime minister and leader of the House of Commons. On 1 November 1990 he resigned in protest at Thatcher's continued opposition to the UK's greater integration in Europe. Howe was born in Port Talbot, Glamorgan, and educated at Westminster School and Trinity Hall, Cambridge. Many of the ideas proposed by Howe in the early 1960s were subsequently taken up by the Thatcher government. Under Edward Heath he was solicitor general 1970–72 and minister for trade 1972–74. Geoffrey Howe British Conservative politician 'Inflation is a great moral evil. Nations which lose confidence in their currency lose confidence in themselves.' [The Times July 1982] Geoffrey Howe British Conservative politician 'The thing I value about Wales and Welsh background is that it has always been a genuinely more classless society than many people present England as being.'
Page356 [Remark 1986]
How‐Martyn, Edith (1875–1954) (born Edith How) English suffragette. She co‐founded the Women's Freedom League with Charlotte Despard and Teresa Billington‐Greig in 1907 and became the first woman member of Middlesex Council in 1919. As founder of the Birth Control International Information Centre (1929) she travelled widely lecturing on women's issues, and published The Birth Control Movement in England (1931). How‐Martyn was born in Cheltenham. Educated at the North London Collegiate School for Girls, at University College, Aberystwyth, and London University, she became secretary of Emmeline Pankhurst's Women's Social and Political Union 1906–07. After the franchise had been extended to include property‐owning women over the age of 30, she stood for parliament in 1918 as an independent candidate representing feminist issues, but was unsuccessful.
Hudson, George (1800–1871) British Conservative politician and industrialist. He started out as a draper in York until he inherited £30,000 in 1828 and invested heavily and successfully in the burgeoning railway system. By the late 1840s he controlled more than 1,600 km/1,000 mi of railway (a third of Britain's railways) and had formed the Midlands Railway and the North Eastern Railway. He had also begun a successful career in local politics. He was mayor of York three times and was elected as member of parliament for Sunderland in 1845. He was forced to flee the country briefly in 1849 when financial difficulties caused the government to investigate his accounts, leading to allegations of fraud.
hue and cry cry of alarm that inhabitants of a manor (or frankpledge) were duty‐bound to raise and respond to, in order to assist in the apprehension of criminals. All members of the manor were bound to join in the pursuit and apprehension of a suspected offender and hand them over to the sheriff for punishment and failure to do so was in itself punishable. The term has now come to refer to any form of general clamour or turmoil.
Hull, Richard Amyatt (1907–) British soldier. He joined the army in 1928 and held several commands during World War II. From 1946–48 he was commandant of Camberley Staff College. He was General Officer Commanding in Egypt (1954–56), deputy chief of the Imperial General Staff (1956–58), commander‐in‐chief of the Far East Land Forces (1958–61), chief of the Imperial General Staff (1961–64), chief of the General Staff of the Ministry of Defence (1964–65), chief of the Defence Staff (1965–67), and constable of the Tower of London (from 1970). Hull was educated at Charterhouse and Trinity College, Cambridge University. He was knighted in 1956.
Humble Petition and Advice constitutional proposal put to Oliver Cromwell by the English parliament 25 May 1657 to moderate army rule under the major‐generals. Although Cromwell refused the crown which the petition urged him to accept, he agreed to other clauses: he nominated a successor; created a second chamber of parliament, consisting
Page357 of up to 70 life peers; and curbed the powers of the Council of State. Parliament's power was greatly increased after the settlement, particularly in regard to taxation, and the petition formed the basis of the constitution until the disputes between Richard Cromwell and the Rump Parliament 1659.
Hume, Allan Octavian (1829–1912) British administrator. Hume was educated at the East India College (now Haileybury College) and London University, passing from there to the Bengal Civil Service in 1849. In Simla he formed an organization which would further the aspirations of advanced Indians; this was the birth of the National Congress which held its first session in 1885. When Hume returned to England in 1894 he took great interest in the British Committee of the Indian Congress. In India Hume made a valuable collection of botanical and ornithological specimens, and published The Game Birds of India, Burmah, and Ceylon (1879–81). He presented his collection to the British Museum of Natural History (South Kensington). He founded the South London Botanical Museum and made provision for it in perpetuity.
Hume, Joseph (1777–1855) British Radical politician. Born in Montrose, Scotland, he went to India as an army surgeon 1797, made a fortune, and on his return bought a seat in Parliament. In 1818 he secured election as a Philosophic Radical and supported many progressive measures.
hunger march procession of the unemployed, a feature of social protest in interwar Britain.
Hunne's case scandal when a London merchant, Richard Hunne was found hanging in his cell in the Bishop of London's prison 4 December 1514 while awaiting trial for heresy. The church claimed he had committed suicide out of guilt but it was widely believed that the charge of heterodoxy was only brought by Bishop Fitzjames because Hunne had challenged the church's right to levy a mortuary tax on the death of a parishioner. Hunne's corpse was burned by the church authorities, preventing its examination but a coroner's court charged the bishop's chancellor, Dr Horsey, with murder. The church protested that lay courts had no authority over the clergy and the case was taken up by the growing anticlerical movement. It was brought before Henry VIII twice but ended in compromise: Horsey was fined and forbidden from living in London but was not formally prosecuted.
Hunt, Henry ('Orator') (1773–1835) British Radical politician who agitated for a wider franchise and the repeal of the Corn Laws. Born into an affluent farming family, he emerged as one of the best‐known radical leaders in the agitation for parliamentary reform following the passage of the Corn Laws in 1815, largely due to his inflammatory rhetoric. His speech at St Peter's Field in Manchester on November 1819 caused the militia to intervene, charging the crowd in what became known as the Peterloo Massacre, and Hunt was imprisoned for three years 1820–23. He was elected member of parliament for Preston 1831–33.
Hurd, Douglas (Richard) (1930–) (Lord of Westwell) British Conservative politician, home secretary 1985–89 and foreign secretary 1989– 95. A moderate 'Heathite' Conservative, he was passed over for the cabinet during Margaret Thatcher's first term as prime minister, but was appointed Northern Ireland secretary in
Page358 1984. In November 1990 he was an unsuccessful candidate in the Tory leadership contest following Margaret Thatcher's unexpected resignation.
husbandmen independent farmer below the rank of yeoman. Unlike yeomen, they did not usually own the land they farmed, but held tenancies of about 10–30 acres.
Huskisson, William (1770–1830) British Conservative politician, financier, and advocate of free trade. He was active in the Corn Law debates, supporting their relaxation in 1821 and replacing the absolute level with a sliding scale in 1828. He was the first person to be killed by a train when he was hit at the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, while crossing the tracks to greet the Duke of Wellington. In his early career Huskisson served as secretary to the Treasury 1807–09 and colonial agent for Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). He also served on a committee that investigated rural distress and agricultural depression.
Hyde, Douglas (1860–1949) (pseudonym An Craoibhín Aoibhinn ('the pleasant little branch')) Irish writer, scholar, and propagandist, president of Ireland 1938–45. He became president of the Gaelic League in 1893. His translations of Irish poetry and prose developed an English style that reflected Gaelic idiom and syntax, and had considerable influence on the younger writers of the Irish literary revival. However, he attempted to resist the politicization of the Gaelic League, and resigned as its president in 1915. He was a member of the Senate from 1925, and was chosen as president of Ireland by agreement between the parties in 1938. Hyde was professor of Irish at University College Dublin, 1909–32. His important published works include Love Songs of Connacht (1893), his Literary History of Ireland (1899) and The Religious Songs of Connacht (1906). He wrote Casadh ant Sugáin (1901), the first modern play in Irish.
Hyndman, Henry Mayers (1842–1921) English socialist. The first important British‐born Marxist, he founded the Democratic Federation 1881 (renamed the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) in 1884) and devoted his life to revolutionary propaganda and agitation. Hyndman was born in London to wealthy upper‐middle‐class parents. After leaving Trinity College, Cambridge, he played cricket for the Sussex county eleven, travelled in Australia and the USA, and worked for the Pall Mall Gazette as a war correspondent and specialist on Indian affairs 1871–80. In 1880, he read Karl Marx's Das Kapital, and was instantly converted to communism. The following year he founded the Democratic Federation and published England For All, which presented Marxist theories in popular form. Karl Marx was furious to discover that the book contained no mention of himself; Hyndman argued that British workers would have been put off communism by foreign names, but he failed to convince Marx and Friedrich Engels, who refused to speak to him again. Hyndman edited the SDF newspaper Justice, and tried to steer other British socialists in the direction of Marxism, but his superior manner and uncertain temper tended to sharpen divisions in the movement. The Socialist League broke away from the SDF in 1884, and Hyndman's influence was further weakened by the rise of the Independent Labour Party after 1893. He endeavoured to mobilize support among the unemployed and was tried and acquitted for his part in the West End riots of 1886.
Page359 It was widely (though mistakenly) believed that he was the inspiration behind the London dock strike in 1889. Hyndman stood for Parliament four times in Burnley without success. His attempts at cooperation with the Labour Party failed, and the SDF remained a small fringe group on the extreme left of British politics. In 1911, it merged into the British Socialist Party, which opposed British involvement in World War I. Hyndman, who was strongly anti‐German, then formed a rival National Socialist Party 1916, which later reverted to the SDF name. During the war, he was a Labour representative on the consumer council of the ministry of food. Hyndman was a gifted propagandist, and spent a large part of his inherited fortune on spreading Marxist ideas. These influenced the wider socialist movement, which was growing in Britain in the 1880s, helping to distinguish it from older forms of radicalism, but his own position soon became marginal.
Hywel Dda (or Hywel the Good) Welsh king. He succeeded his father Cadell as ruler of Seisyllwg (roughly former Cardiganshire and present Twyi Valley), at first jointly with his brother Clydog c. 910–920 then alone 920–950. He had extended his realm to Dyfed, Gwynedd, and Powys by 942, creating a larger Welsh kingdom than any before. His reign was peaceful, mainly because he was subservient to the English kings. He is said to have codified Welsh laws, but there is no contemporary record of this.
I Iceni ancient people of eastern England, who revolted against Roman occupation under the chieftainship of Boudicca.
Icknield Way major pre‐Roman trackway traversing southeast England. It runs from Wells‐next‐the‐Sea on the Norfolk coast in a generally southwesterly direction, passing first through Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire. The Icknield Way then runs through Luton in Bedfordshire, skirts the Chiltern Hills, crosses the River Thames at Goring and follows the line of the Berkshire Downs to the source of the River Kennet in Wiltshire.
Imperial War Cabinet in World War I, inner circle of British cabinet ministers and officials directing both war matters and domestic affairs 1916–19. The idea of a war cabinet was devised by Sir Maurice Hankey largely to allow Lloyd George to govern without opposition. The Empire was represented only by the active participation of General Jan Smuts, the future South African prime minister.
impressment system of forced conscription, often of the poor or destitute, into the armed forces, particularly the Royal Navy, employed in the 18th and 19th centuries. In effect it was a form of kidnapping carried out by the services or their agents, often with the aid of armed men. This was similar to the practice of 'shanghaiing' sailors for duty in the merchant marine, especially in the Far East.
impropriation the transfer following the dissolution of the monasteries in 1536 of the tithes and advowsons of parish churches to either the Crown or powerful lay persons. Tithes became a source of private wealth, as little tended to be passed on to the parochial curate, while advowsons were used by powerful patrons to nominate vicars of
Page360 their own religious persuasion. In the 1620s the Feofees for Impropriations attempted to divert these resources for the support of a Puritan ministry, while the Arminians campaigned for institutional change to ensure that ecclesiastical rights were used for the benefit of the church, rather than private landowners.
Indemnity and Oblivion, Act of In England, act of the Convention Parliament 1660 implementing the amnesty outlined in the Treaty of Breda as a precursor to the Restoration of Charles II. Participants in the events of the previous 20 years were pardoned, with the exception of 50 named individuals, including 13 of the regicides who had signed Charles I's death warrant.
indentured retainers in the later middle ages, a person bound in service to a lord on the basis of a contract rather than on the granting of land, as had been the case in the feudal system. The document of indenture was copied out twice on a single parchment, with a word or phrase between the two copies. Each party to the contract then retained one half of the document and its authenticity could be verified by matching the two halves of the phrase. Some indenture contracts were extremely long and complex, explaining in detail the precise nature of the services to be rendered and the recompense to be granted for it. For some time, indentured troops were the main source of recruitment to the army, particularly during the Hundred Years' War.
Independent Labour Party (ILP) British socialist party, founded in Bradford in 1893 by the Scottish politician Keir Hardie. In 1900 it joined with trades unions and Fabians in founding the Labour Representation Committee, the nucleus of the Labour Party. Many members left the ILP to join the Communist Party in 1921, and in 1932 all connections with the Labour Party were severed. After World War II the ILP dwindled, eventually becoming extinct. James Maxton (1885–1946) was its chair 1926–46.
Independents in the 16th and 17th centuries in England, nonconformists who espoused total autonomy for local congregations from both the state and any established church. Independents rejected episcopacy outright and by the time of the Civil War the term meant those who even opposed a Presbyterian form of a national church. The main Independent groups were the Congregationalists and the Baptists though there were also smaller fringe groups such as the Anabaptists and the radical fifth monarchy men. Independents dominated the New Model Army.
Indirect Rule system of colonial government widely employed by the British for the administration of colonies. Indirect rule sought to encourage and govern through local institutions and traditional authorities with a view to promoting self‐government in the long term.
Industrial Revolution acceleration of technical and economic development that took place in Britain in the second half of the 18th century. The traditional agricultural economy was replaced by one dominated by machinery and manufacturing, made possible through technical advances such as the steam engine. This transferred the balance of political power from the landowner to the industrial capitalist (for example, a factory owner) and created an urban working class. As the first country to have an industrial revolution, Britain for a while was the 'workshop of the world'.
Page361 The Industrial Revolution, therefore, became the basis of 19th‐century British world power and the British Empire. From 1830 to the early 20th century, the Industrial Revolution spread throughout Europe and the USA, and to Japan and the various colonial empires. The term 'Industrial Revolution' has been criticized on the grounds that it implies a sudden and dramatic change, whereas the process of industrialization was long‐drawn‐out, erratic, and varied from industry to industry and from region to region. Industrial Revolution
(Image © Billie Love)
A young girl working in a brickyard in Victorian England, 1871. Factory owners exploited children, sometimes just five or six years of age, to work long, hard hours in poor conditions. In 1878 the first significant legislation against child labour banned the employment of children under 10 years of age and restricted the hours of those aged between 10 and 14.
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Industrial Revolution
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A Punch cartoon of 1844 entitled Capital and Labour contrasts the luxurious life of a mineowner with the harsh working conditions in the pits. Although the Industrial Revolution brought Britain as a whole greater material prosperity, it also caused massive social upheavals.
Information, Ministry of British government department created in 1939, at the beginning of World War II, to control the supply and content of information about the war. It distributed British government propaganda and controlled censorship for the duration of the war, a function considered vital to the war effort. The ministry also produced informative and morale‐boosting material, working closely with the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Home
Page363 Service to put out the most positive angle on the day's news. To reassure the public and maximize national efficiency, the ministry created posters, pamphlets, and public information films about air‐raid shelters, gas attacks, and self‐sufficiency. Actors, writers, directors, and artists were employed to produce positive images of Britain. Henry V (1944) by Laurence Olivier, based on the play by William Shakespeare, was just one of the many films celebrating historic British endeavour and culture. Other films, such as Went the Day Well? (1942) in which a single village repels a German invasion, poked fun at the enemy. Food rationing had been introduced at the beginning of the war and there was a government drive towards self‐sufficiency. Poster campaigns encouraged people to 'Dig for Victory' by planting their own vegetable patches. Other posters discouraged gossip. The cartoonist Cyril Bird used the line 'Careless talk costs lives' to encourage people not to talk about potentially confidential and valuable information in case it was overheard by German spies.
INLA abbreviation for Irish National Liberation Army.
Instrument of Government, the English constitution of 1653–57 which established a Protectorate, with Oliver Cromwell at its head, assisted by a Council of State, and established a single‐chamber parliament, consisting of 460 members. When parliament was not sitting the Lord Protector was empowered to issue legislation along with the Council of State. Protestants were also granted toleration under the new constitution. The settlement was imposed by the army and was widely perceived as being weighted too heavily in favour of the army, so that it was soon superseded by the Humble Petition May 1657.
interregnum two periods in British history when the nation was temporarily without a monarch. The first interregnum covers both the Commonwealth and the Protectorate, starting with the execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649 until the Restoration of the monarchy on 8 May 1660, although Charles II always dated his reign from 1649. The second interregnum occurred at the time of the Glorious Revolution, in the period between the flight of James II on 22 December 1688 and the accession of William and Mary to the English throne on 23 February 1689.
Invergordon Mutiny incident in the British Atlantic Fleet, Cromarty Firth, Scotland, on 15 September 1931. Ratings refused to prepare the ships for sea following the government's cuts in their pay; the cuts were consequently modified.
Invincibles, the group of Irish terrorist revolutionaries formed in 1881 to carry out political assassinations. Established in Dublin as the Irish National Invincibles, an offshoot of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, their leaders included James Carey, John McCafferty, and P J Tynan. Notoriety soon followed their first, and only real attack, the Phoenix Park Murders in 1882, when they assassinated the chief secretary for Ireland, Lord Frederick Cavendish, and his undersecretary, Thomas Burke. In a massive investigation, Carey was soon identified as a suspect and he turned Queen's evidence (gaining immunity by naming others involved), which led to the arrest of 20 main conspirators. Attempting to flee to Cape Town, South Africa, Carey was
Page364 shot dead by Patrick Donnell, a bricklayer and former Invincible. Five of the Invincible leaders were hanged, and the remainder were given lengthy prison sentences. It was revealed that Edmund Burke had been their intended target, and they had been unaware of the importance of Cavendish.
IRA abbreviation for Irish Republican Army.
Ireland: history to 1154 there is some debate about the date of the earliest human occupants of Ireland. Various sites, such as that at Larne, had suggested that a Mesolithic culture, based on hunting and fishing, was established by around 6000 BC. However, it is now thought that these hunting and fishing people may have been contemporary to the Neolithic communities and megalith builders, who arrived at the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. The Irish megalith builders developed the passage tomb, some of the most remarkable of which are found at Newgrange, where the main passage is aligned to the winter solstice. In the Bronze Age Ireland held an important position, trading gold ornaments, such as torques (armbands and bracelets), all over Europe.
Ireland: history 1154 to 1485 for the history of Ireland before 1154, see Ireland: history to 1154. During the Middle Ages (12th–15th century), the English crown made itself the overlord of Ireland and tried but failed to extend its control over Ireland. Following the Anglo‐Norman conquest, completed by Henry II in 1172, English colonization began, particularly in the east in the region around Dublin, an area that became known as the English Pale. However, control over the Irish chiefs was limited, despite campaigns by John (I) Lackland in 1210 and Richard II 1394–95, and the period saw a number of rebellions and the gradual decline of English colonial presence. The Anglo‐Norman barons (later known as the Anglo‐Irish) gradually became more Irish than the Gaelic Irish.
Ireland: history 1485 to 1603 for the history of Ireland before 1485, see Ireland: history to 1154 and Ireland: history 1154 to 1485. The monarchs of the Tudor dynasty tried to extend their control over Ireland. During the reign of Henry VII Poynings' Law (1494) gave the English Parliament control over the Irish Parliament, and in 1541 Henry VIII assumed the title 'King of Ireland'. Ireland was divided into counties, and brought under English law. The mere fact of English occupation made the Irish hate them, but the Act of Supremacy (1534) and the break with Rome during the Reformation introduced another factor into the conflict: disagreement over religion. Concerned about growing Catholic Irish conspiracy with their Catholic enemies abroad, Elizabeth I and James I went further, confiscating lands from Irish Catholic rebels and giving them as plantations to 'loyal' Protestant settlers, many of them from Scotland. The result was a string of further revolts and rebellions, the worst of which were the Desmond revolts of 1569–83. These uprisings were put down with great ruthlessness.
Page365 Ireland: history 1603 to 1782 for the history of Ireland before 1603, see Ireland: history to 1154, Ireland: history 1154 to 1485, and Ireland: history 1485 to 1603. The 17th and 18th centuries saw the military triumph of the English over the Irish Catholics, marked primarily by Cromwell's Irish campaign (1649–50) and, under William (III) of Orange, the Battle of the Boyne (1690). The native Irish people were brutally suppressed; their lands were confiscated and given to Protestants, and they were subjected to a penal code that deprived them of civil liberties.
Ireland: history 1782 to 1921 for the history of Ireland before 1603, see Ireland: history to 1154, Ireland: history 1154 to 1485, Ireland: history 1485 to 1603, and Ireland: history 1603 to 1782. The period 1782–1921 saw a Catholic‐Gaelic revival, particularly following the scourge of the potato famine in the mid‐19th century, with increasing emancipation, successful agitation to secure tenant rights, and movement to Home Rule. The Protestant northeast, however, united to protect its status and prestige.
Ireton, Henry (1611–1651) English general. During the Civil War he joined the parliamentary forces and fought at Edgehill in 1642, Gainsborough in 1643, and Naseby in 1645. After the Battle of Naseby, Ireton, who was opposed to both the extreme republicans and Levellers, strove for a compromise with Charles I, but then played a leading role in his trial and execution. He married his leader Cromwell's daughter in 1646. Lord Deputy in Ireland from 1650, he died after the capture of Limerick.
Irish Free State name of the former state of southern Ireland 1922–37, established as a result of the Anglo‐Irish Treaty (1921). It was replaced by Eire in 1937 and the Republic of Ireland in 1949. The treaty established a 26‐county dominion, which exercised a significant degree of autonomy but was formally subordinated to the British crown through the appointment of a governor general and an oath of fidelity to be taken by its representatives. The Irish Free State Constitution, a liberal democratic document with safeguards for the Protestant minority, was approved by the Dáil (parliament) on 25 October 1922 and ratified by Britain on 5 December. The Free State was formally inaugurated the following day, in the midst of the Irish Civil War (1922–23), with William Cosgrave as first president of the executive council The Free State was not recognized by republicans, who set up a rival government under Éamon de Valera, leader of Sinn Fein, in 1922. It was not until Fianna Fáil entered the Dáil in 1927 that the Free State's legitimacy was fully established. After leading Fianna Fáil to power in 1932 de Valera instigated a series of reforms including the abolition of the governor general and substitution of the 1922 constitution with his own, which effectively dismantled the Irish Free State by 1937.
Page366 Irish Land Acts series of 19th‐century laws designed to improve the lot of the Irish peasantry. The first act in 1870 awarded tenants compensation for improvements they had made to land, but offered no protection against increased rents or eviction. The second act in 1881 introduced the 'three 'f's' – fair rents, fixity of tenure, and freedom of sale. The third act in 1885, part of the British prime minister William Gladstone's abortive plans for home rule, provided £5 million for tenants to buy out their landlords. This scheme was further strengthened by the Wyndham Act of 1903, which offered inducements to landlords to sell. Before the end of the Union with Britain, some 11 million acres were purchased with government assistance.
Irish nationalism in Ireland, political and cultural expression of the concept of an Irish nation. Although a sense of Irishness probably existed in the Gaelic period before the 12th‐century Norman invasion, political Irish nationalism developed from the early 16th century, when Protestant government reaction to Counter‐Reformation Catholicism included measures such as the Plantation of Ireland by Protestant settlers. Militant radical (revolutionary) nationalism received inspiration from the American and French revolutions in the 18th century and continued until the 20th century. However, a constitutional (political) approach was adopted by 19th‐century reformist politicians such as Daniel O'Connell and Charles Stewart Parnell. At the turn of the 20th century, a literary revival promoted Irish cultural nationalism against anglicization. See also Ireland: history to 1154, Ireland: history 1154 to 1485, Ireland: history 1485 to 1603, Ireland: history 1603 to 1782, Ireland: history 1782 to 1921, and Northern Ireland.
Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) guerrilla organization committed to the end of British rule in Northern Ireland and Irish reunification. The INLA, founded in 1974, is a left‐wing offshoot of the Irish Republican Army (IRA). Among its activities was the killing of British politician Airey Neave in 1979. The INLA initially rejected the IRA's call for a ceasefire in 1994; its assassination in 1997 of loyalist leader Billy Wright threatened to destabilize the peace process and bomb attacks occurred in London in 1998. However, after the Omagh bomb atrocity in 1998 the INLA became the first republican subversive group to state explicitly that the war was over and voice strong support for the peace process. The INLA has repeatedly been devastated by internecine feuds. In 1987 alone, 13 members were killed in a vendetta between rival factions. Its leader, Gino Gallagher, was shot and killed in Belfast in January 1996 by feuding INLA members.
Irish Republican Army (IRA) militant Irish nationalist organization formed in 1919, the paramilitary wing of Sinn Fein. Its aim is to create a united Irish socialist republic including Ulster. To this end, the IRA has frequently carried out bombings and shootings. Despite its close association with Sinn Fein, it is not certain that the politicians have direct control of the military, the IRA usually speaking as a separate, independent organization. The chief common factor shared by Sinn Fein and the IRA is the aim of a united Ireland. IRA splinter groups
Page367 In 1969 the IRA split into two wings, one 'official' and the other 'provisional'. The official wing sought reunification by political means, while the Provisional IRA, or Provos as they became known, carried on with terrorist activities, their objective being the expulsion of the British from Northern Ireland. It is this wing, of younger, strongly sectarian, Ulster Catholics, who are now generally regarded and spoken of as the IRA. The left‐wing Irish Republican Socialist Party, with its paramilitary wing, the Irish National Liberation Army, split from the IRA in 1974. Seán MacStíofáin Irish activist 'This is not just another glorious phase in Irish history. We must win. We can't afford to lose. We will keep the campaign going regardless of the cost to ourselves, regardless of the cost to anyone else.' [Seán MacStíofáin, Chief of Staff of the Irish Republican Army's militant Provisional wing, quoted in Time, 10 January 1972.]
Irish Republican Brotherhood secret revolutionary society that grew out of the Fenian movement, in the wake of the failed insurrection of 1867, in an effort to reform its organization and improve its security precautions. Although very successful in the 1870s and 1880s in attracting membership and in encouraging secret agrarian agitation, internal frictions over the question of support for home rule hampered the movement thereafter. By the early 1910s, thanks to increasing frustration with constitutional politicians and the organizational skills of Tom Clarke (1857–1916) and Sean MacDermott the movement had revived and was a considerable force behind both the 1916 Easter Rising and the Anglo‐Irish War. Damaged by splits among it leaders over the Anglo‐Irish Treaty, the brotherhood was said to have been dissolved in 1924, but rumours that it has survived in the USA, until the time of the Northern Ireland peace process, have persisted.
Irish republicanism extreme wing of the Irish nationalist cause. Like Irish nationalism, its aims are complete separation from British rule and a united 32‐county republic. Republicanism, however, has generally been associated with organizations prepared to use physical force to achieve these aims. The history of Irish republicanism covers a period of over 200 years, from the activities of the United Irishmen in the 1790s to those of Sinn Fein and the Irish Republican Army (IRA) in the 20th and 21st centuries.
Irish Volunteers Irish national defence force formed at the Rotunda, Dublin, on 25 November 1913 to defend the principle of home rule. It took its name from the Volunteers, a part‐time militia which had been formed 1778–79 to protect the country from invasion. The Volunteers had played an important role in securing legislative independence in 1782, and their name still evoked strong memories in the 1910s. Inspired by an article by Eoin MacNeill in An Claideamh Soluis, the newspaper of the Gaelic League, the formation of the Irish Volunteers was also a response to the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), which had been formed the previous year. Among the organizers was the Irish revolutionary and socialist Liam Mellows. Recruitment took place throughout the country. By
Page368 March 1914 membership stood at 8,000, and guns and ammunition were smuggled into Ireland that year in the Howth gunrunning incident, led by (Robert) Erskine Childers (1870–1922). An Englishman by birth, Childers gradually became a committed republican, and was involved in the negotiations for the Anglo‐Irish Treaty, which he later opposed; he was executed during the Irish Civil War (1922–23). His son, Erskine H Childers (1905–1974), was later president of Ireland, 1973–74. With the outbreak of World War I, the Irish Volunteers split. The bulk of the then 160,000‐strong movement followed the Irish Parliamentary Party leader John Redmond's plea and enlisted to join the British army, as the National Volunteers. Unlike the UVF, however, they were not given distinct regiments and were deliberately separated. Only a small number remained in Ireland, rising to 11,000 in 1915. Infiltrated by the nationalist Irish Republican Brotherhood, the Irish Volunteers became embroiled in the plans for the 1916 Easter Rising to overthrow British rule. (Robert) Erskine Childers Irish Sinn Fein politician 'Come closer, boys, it will be easier for you.' [Words to the firing squad taking up position across the prison yard, quoted in Burke Wilkinson The Zeal of the Convert 1976 ch. 26.]
iron and steel industry the development of the iron and steel industry and its contribution to the Industrial Revolution is described in Industrial Revolution, iron and steel.
Ironside, (William) Edmund, 1st Baron Ironside (1880–1959) Scottish field marshal. He served in the South African War 1899–1902 and World War I. In 1939 during World War II, he replaced Viscount Gort as Chief of the Imperial General Staff because the minister of war, Leslie Hore‐Belisha, found him more congenial. In May 1940 he sided with Gort against Churchill in a disagreement over the possibility of the British Expeditionary Force breaking out to the south. Churchill transferred Ironside to the Home Forces, but he handed the post over to Alanbrooke in July 1940 and retired. KCB 1919, Baron 1941.
Ironsides nickname of regiment raised by Cromwell in 1643 during the Civil War. It was noted for its discipline and religious fanaticism, and first won fame at the Battle of Marston Moor in 1644. The nickname came from that of 'Ironside' given Cromwell by Prince Rupert.
Isaacs, Rufus Daniel (1860–1935) (1st Marquess of Reading) British Liberal lawyer and politician. As Lord Chief Justice he tried the Irish nationalist Roger Casement in 1916. He was viceroy of India 1921–26, and foreign secretary in 1931.
Isaacs, Susan Brierley (1885–1948) (born Susan Fairhurst) English educationist. A
Page369 disciple of Sigmund Freud and believer in the enduring effects of early childhood experience, she was a powerful influence in the education of young children between the wars. In her experimental progressive school, Malting House, Cambridge (1924–27), she practised self‐learning rather than direct instruction, and allowed emotional expression rather than imposing restrictive discipline. She was head of child development at the Institute of Education, London 1933–44. In her written works Intellectual Growth in Young Children (1930) and Social Development of Young Children (1933), some of her conclusions concerning the stages of children's intellectual development challenged the theories of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, before it was considered acceptable to question his work.
Isabella of Angoulême (died 1246) Queen of England 1200–16, as the second wife of King John. His loss of Normandy was popularly blamed on his infatuation with her, but this did not last. She was imprisoned in Gloucester 1214 until his death 1216 when she returned to France and married a former lover. She inherited Angoulême in her own right, and persuaded her son, Henry III to wage an abortive war in France 1241. They were defeated and Isabella was forced to flee to an abbey 1244 where she remained until her death.
Isandhlwana, Battle of in the Anglo‐Zulu War, Zulu victory over British forces on 22 January 1879 about 160 km/100 mi north of Durban. Only about 350 troops of the original contingent of 1,800 escaped and the invasion of Zululand was temporarily halted until reinforcements were received from Britain. Lord Chelmsford British viceroy of India 'We have certainly been seriously under‐rating the power of the Zulu army.' [Attributed remark after the British defeat at Isandhlwana 1879, during the Zulu War]
Isles, Lord of the title adopted by successive heads of the MacDonald clan to assert their dominance over the Scottish highlands and the Western Isles, and independence from the king of Scots. James IV acquired their rights in 1493 and today the title is held by the Prince of Wales as heir to the monarch in Scotland.
J Jack the Ripper Popular name for the unidentified mutilator and murderer of at least five women prostitutes in the Whitechapel area of London in 1888.
Jacob, Claud William (1863–1948) British soldier. At the outbreak of World War I he went to France with the Meerut Division and was the only Indian army officer to rise to high command there. In 1915 he led the Dehra Dun Brigade at Neuve Chapelle and at Aubers Ridge. For the remainder of the war he commanded the II Corps; he was
Page370 involved in the battles of the Somme and the Ancre, the pursuit of the Germans to the Hindenburg Line in 1917, the third battle of Ypres, and the final Allied advance to victory in Flanders in 1918. Jacob was educated at Sherborne School and the Royal Military College at Sandhurst. He joined the Worcestershire Regiment in 1882 but transferred to the Indian army in 1884. In 1920, with the rank of field marshal, he returned to India on his appointment as chief of the general staff. In 1924 he was given the Northern Command in India and from 1926–30 was military secretary at the India Office.
Jacobite in Britain, a supporter of the royal house of Stuart after the deposition of James II in 1688. They include the Scottish Highlanders, who rose unsuccessfully under Claverhouse in 1689, despite initial victory at the Battle of Killiecrankie; and those who rose in Scotland and northern England in 1715 (the Fifteen) under the leadership of James Edward Stuart, the Old Pretender, and followed his son Charles Edward Stuart in an invasion of England from 1745 to 1746 (the Forty‐Five) that reached Derby; see United Kingdom: history 1714–1815, the Jacobite rebellions. After the defeat at Culloden, Jacobitism disappeared as a political force.
James two kings of Britain:
James I (1566–1625) King of England from 1603 and Scotland (as James VI) from 1567. The son of Mary Queen of Scots and her second husband, Lord Darnley, he succeeded to the Scottish throne on the enforced abdication of his mother and assumed power in 1583. He established a strong centralized authority, and in 1589 married Anne of Denmark (1574–1619). As successor to Elizabeth I in England, he alienated the Puritans by his High Church views and Parliament by his assertion of divine right, and was generally unpopular because of his favourites, such as Buckingham, and his schemes for an alliance with Spain. He was succeeded by his son Charles I. As king of Scotland, he curbed the power of the nobility, although his attempts to limit the authority of the Kirk (Church of Scotland) were less successful. Upon his accession to the English throne on the death of Elizabeth I, James acted mainly upon the advice of Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, but on the latter's death all restraint vanished. His religious policy consisted of asserting the supreme authority of the crown and suppressing both Puritans and Catholics who objected. The preparation of the Authorized Version of the Bible in English, published in 1611, was ordered by James. Led by Robert Catesby, a group of Catholic gentry planned to blow up James at the opening of Parliament in 1605, but the plot was discovered. The anti‐Catholic reaction to the gunpowder plot gave James a temporary popularity, which soon dissipated. It was during his reign that the Puritan Pilgrims (or 'Pilgrim Fathers') sailed to the New World to escape persecution in England. His foreign policy, aimed primarily at achieving closer relations with Spain, was also disliked.
Page371 James I
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James I of England. Although a physically weak man, he was extremely learned and wrote two books advocating the 'divine right of kings'. James I King of England and Scotland 'A custom loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, dangerous to the lungs.' [On tobacco smoking in A Counterblast to Tobacco (1604)]
Page372 James I King of England and Scotland 'The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth: for kings are not only God's Lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself they are called Gods.' [Speech to Parliament, March 1609] James I King of England and Scotland '... it is now become like a little World within itself, being entrenched and fortified round about with a natural and yet admirably strong pond or ditch, whereby all the former fears are now quite cut off.' [Referring to the uniting of England and Scotland in his first speech to Parliament, March 1603] James I King of England and Scotland 'I am sure ye would not have me renounce my religion for all the world. I am not a Monsieur who can shift his religion as easily as he can shift his shirt when he comes in from tennis.' [Attributed] James I King of England and Scotland 'I will govern according to the common weal, but not according to the common will.' [Reply to the House of Commons, 1621] Hugh Trevor‐Roper English historian 'An omniscient umpire no one consulted.' [On James I, in Archbishop Laud 1862]
Page373 James II (1633–1701) King of England and Scotland (as James VII) from 1685. The second son of Charles I, he succeeded his brother, Charles II. In 1660 James married Anne Hyde (1637–1671; mother of Mary II and Anne) and in 1673 Mary of Modena (mother of James Edward Stuart). He became a Catholic in 1669, which led first to attempts to exclude him from the succession, then to the rebellions of Monmouth and Argyll, and finally to the Whig and Tory leaders' invitation to William of Orange to take the throne in 1688. James fled to France, then led an uprising in Ireland in 1689, but after defeat at the Battle of the Boyne (1690) remained in exile in France. At the Restoration in 1660 he had been appointed lord high admiral and warden of the Cinque Ports, but after the passing of the Test Act in 1673 (which excluded Catholics from public office) he was forced to give up his offices. events of his reign and unpopularity On his accession to the throne he promised to defend the Church of England, and his reign began peacefully enough. However, the unnecessarily savage repression of the Monmouth rising in 1685 by Judge Jeffreys'Bloody Assizes alienated many supporters. James began to build up a standing army and to re‐establish Catholicism. He issued a Declaration of Indulgence (1687) allowing freedom of worship, and appointed Catholics as commanders in the army, which he stationed just outside London. When seven bishops refused to read a second Declaration of Indulgence (1688) from the pulpit, he imprisoned them. People were convinced that James intended to establish an absolutist, Catholic state. James had no male heir by his marriage to Anne Hyde, but in June 1688 Mary of Modena gave birth to a son. Rumours circulated that the child was not the king's son, but a baby smuggled into the room in a warming pan. The arrival of a male heir, destined to be raised as a Catholic, destroyed English hopes of a Protestant succession and prompted seven leading politicians to invite William of Orange – the husband of James's daughter Mary – to claim the throne in the Glorious Revolution. James II King of England and Scotland 'I have often heretofore ventured my life in defence of this nation: and I shall go as far as any man in preserving it in all its just rights and liberties.' [To the Privy Council on becoming king 1685]
James seven kings of Scotland:
James I (1394–1437) King of Scotland (1406–37), who assumed power in 1424. He was a cultured and strong monarch whose improvements in the administration of justice brought him popularity among the common people. He was assassinated by a group of conspirators led by the Earl of Atholl.
Page374 James I King of Scotland 'God gives not kings the style of Gods in vain ... So kings should fear and serve their God again.' ['Sonnet Addressed to His Son, Prince Henry']
James II (1430–1460) King of Scotland from 1437, who assumed power in 1449. The only surviving son of James I, he was supported by most of the nobles and parliament. He sympathized with the Lancastrians during the Wars of the Roses, and attacked English possessions in southern Scotland. He was killed while besieging Roxburgh Castle. Almost continual civil war raged during the period of his minority; the prize of the victors was the custody of the king. In 1449 he married Mary, daughter of the Duke of Gueldres. He was succeeded by his son James III.
James III (1451–1488) King of Scotland from 1460, who assumed power in 1469. His reign was marked by rebellions by the nobles, including his brother Alexander, Duke of Albany. He was murdered during a rebellion supported by his son, who then ascended the throne as James IV. Eldest son of James II, he became king at the age of nine. In 1469 he married Margaret, daughter of King Christian I of Denmark.
James IV (1473–1513) King of Scotland from 1488. He came to the throne after his followers murdered his father, James III, at Sauchieburn. His reign was internally peaceful, but he allied himself with France against England, invaded in 1513, and was defeated and killed at the Battle of Flodden. James IV was a patron of poets and architects as well as a military leader. In 1503 he married Margaret Tudor ((1489–1541), daughter of Henry VII), which eventually led to his descendants succeeding to the English crown. He was succeeded by his son James V.
James V (1512–1542) King of Scotland from 1513, who assumed power in 1528. During the long period of his minority, he was caught in a struggle between pro‐French and pro‐English factions. When he assumed power, he allied himself with France and upheld Catholicism against the Protestants. Following an attack on Scottish territory by Henry VIII's forces, he was defeated near the border at Solway Moss in 1542. Son of James IV and Margaret Tudor, he succeeded his father at the age of one year. His first wife, Madeline, daughter of King Francis I of France, died in 1537; the following year he married Mary of Guise. Their daughter, Mary Queen of Scots, succeeded him. James V King of Scotland 'God's will be done. It came with a lass and will go with a lass.'
Page375 [On the Stuart tenure of the Scottish crown: when informed of the birth of a daughter (Mary Queen of Scots) December 1542 on his deathbed after defeat by the English at the Battle of Solway Moss]
James VI of Scotland. See James I of England.
James VII of Scotland. See James II of England.
James Francis Edward Stuart (1688–1766) British prince, known as the Old Pretender (for the Jacobites, he was James III). Son of James II, he was born at St James's Palace and after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 was taken to France. He landed in Scotland in 1715 to head a Jacobite rebellion (the Fifteen) but withdrew through lack of support. In his later years he settled in Rome.
Jamestown first permanent British settlement in North America, established by Captain John Smith in 1607. It was capital of Virginia from 1624–99. In the nearby Jamestown Festival Park there is a replica of the original Fort James, and models of the ships (Discovery, Godspeed, and Constant) that carried the 105 pioneers.
Jarrow Crusade in Britain, march in 1936 from Jarrow to London, protesting at the high level of unemployment following the closure of Palmer's shipyard in the town. The march was led by Labour MP Ellen Wilkinson, and it proved a landmark event of the 1930s depression. In 1986, on the fiftieth anniversary of the event, a similar march was held to protest at the high levels of unemployment in the 1980s.
Jay, Douglas Patrick Thomas (1907–1996) (Baron Jay of Battersea) British Labour politician. Elected member of Parliament for Battersea North in a 1946 by‐election, he held the seat (known from 1974 as the Battersea division of Wandsworth) until 1983. Jay was financial secretary to the Treasury 1947–50 and shadow spokesperson on trade and treasury affairs 1951–62. Under Harold Wilson, Jay was president of the Board of Trade from 1964 until being sacked in 1967. Jay stood out as an opponent of the UK's entry into the European Economic Community (he campaigned for a 'no' vote in the 1975 referendum).
Jellalabad, Battle of Afghan siege in 1841 of isolated British outpost at Jellalabad (now Jalalabad) about 130 km/80 mi east of Kabul. The siege was lifted after five months when a British counterattack routed the Afghans, driving them back to Kabul.
Jellicoe, John Rushworth (1859–1935) (1st Earl Jellicoe) British admiral who commanded
Page376 the Grand Fleet 1914–16 during World War I; the only action he fought was the inconclusive battle of Jutland. He was First Sea Lord 1916– 17, when he failed to push the introduction of the convoy system to combat U‐boat attacks. KCVO 1907, Viscount 1918, 1st Earl 1925. John Rushworth, 1st Earl Jellicoe British admiral 'I had always to remember that I could have lost the war in an afternoon.' [Attributed remark, referring to the Battle of Jutland]
Jenkins, (David) Clive (1926–1999) Welsh trade union leader. Jenkins was well known as a militant negotiator and a fluent controversialist, and as an advocate of British withdrawal from the European Economic Community. He was a member of the TUC (Trades Union Congress) General Council from 1974. He was a Metropolitan borough councillor (1954–60), editor of Trade Union Affairs, and author of several publications, including The Kind of Laws the Unions Ought to Want (1968), co‐authored with J Mortimer, and Computers and the Unions (1978), co‐authored with Barrie Sherman. Jenkins was born in Port Talbot, Wales, where he was educated before going on to Swansea Technical College. He started work in a metallurgical test house in 1940. In 1946 he was branch secretary and area treasurer for the Association of Scientific Workers; in 1947 he was assistant Midlands divisional officer for ASSET (Association of Supervisory Staffs, Executives and Technicians). He became transport industrial officer in 1949, and national officer in 1954. He then served as s general secretary of ASSET (1961–68) and, from 1970, as general secretary of the Association of Scientific, Technical, and Managerial Staffs.
Jenkins, Robert (lived 1731) British sea captain. He appeared before the House of Commons and produced what he claimed was his ear which, he alleged, had been cut off by the Spaniards who had boarded his vessel off Havana in 1731, and accused him of smuggling. This provoked the War of Jenkins's Ear between Britain and Spain in 1739 and led to Robert Walpole's downfall in 1742.
Jenkins, Roy Harris (1920–2003) (Baron Jenkins of Hillhead) British politician, born in Monmouthshire, Wales. He became a Labour minister in 1964, was home secretary 1965–67 and 1974–76, and chancellor of the Exchequer 1967–70. He was president of the European Commission 1977–81. In 1981 he became one of the founders of the Social Democratic Party and was elected as an SDP MP in 1982, but lost his seat in 1987. In the same year, he was elected chancellor of Oxford University and made a life peer. In 1997 he was appointed head of a commission, set up by the Labour government, to recommend, in 1998, a new voting system for elections to Parliament.
Jenkinson, Anthony (died 1611) English merchant and sea captain. He visited Asia Minor and North Africa in 1546, and in 1557 was appointed agent of the Muscovy Company. He travelled to Bokhara (1558–59), and was
Page377 commissioned to trade with Persia. By his efforts his company obtained the monopoly of the White Sea trade.
Jenkinson, Charles Hilary (1882–1961) British archivist. He entered the public record office in 1906 and was Deputy Keeper of the Records and Keeper of the Land Revenue Records (1947–54). As adviser on archives to the War Office, he made a considerable contribution to protecting the records of Italy, Germany, and Austria during their occupation in World War II and also attended the Nuremberg Trials to advise on the archives of the Tribunal. Jenkinson was educated at Cambridge University. Among the appointments he held were member of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts, honorary vice‐president of the International Council on Archives, which he was instrumental in founding, and vice‐president of the British Records Association. He lectured on archives at Cambridge and London universities, and was a prime mover in establishing the first British professional training course for archivists at University College, London, in 1947. Among his major works are The Later Court Hands in England (1927), English Court Hand (1915), coauthored with C Johnson, and A Manual of Archive Administration (1922, revised 1937). Awarded the CBE in 1943, he was knighted in 1949.
Jenkins's Ear, War of war in 1739 between Britain and Spain, arising from Britain's illicit trade in Spanish America; it merged into the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48). The name derives from the claim of Robert Jenkins, a merchant captain, that his ear had been cut off by Spanish coastguards near Jamaica. The incident was seized on by opponents of Robert Walpole who wanted to embarrass his government's antiwar policy and force war with Spain.
Jenner, Edward (1749–1823) English physician who pioneered vaccination. In Jenner's day, smallpox was a major killer. His discovery in 1796 that inoculation with cowpox gives immunity to smallpox was a great medical breakthrough. Jenner observed that people who worked with cattle and contracted cowpox from them never subsequently caught smallpox. In 1798 he published his findings that a child inoculated with cowpox, then two months later with smallpox, did not get smallpox. He coined the word 'vaccination' from the Latin word for cowpox, vaccinia. Edward Jenner English physician 'The deviation of man from the state in which he was originally placed by nature seems to have proved him to be a prolific source of diseases.' [An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, or Cow‐pox]
Jervis, John (1735–1823) (1st Earl of St Vincent) English admiral who secured the blockage of Toulon, France, in 1795 during the Revolutionary Wars, and the defeat of the Spanish fleet off Cape St Vincent in 1797, in which Admiral Nelson played a key part. Jervis was a rigid disciplinarian. KB 1782, Earl
Page378 1797.
Jew the term 'Jew', for a follower of Judaism (the Jewish religion), came into use in medieval Europe, based on the Latin name for Judeans, the people of Judah. In medieval times, Jewish people were amongst the minority who were literate – every Jewish community had a synagogue and a school. In England many Jews spoke four languages – French to the nobles, English to the common people, Hebrew for the home, and Latin for learning. Some were learned scholars and writers. In medieval medicine, many doctors were Jews.
Jex‐Blake, Sophia Louisa (1840–1912) British physician. In 1874 she founded the London School of Medicine for Women and in 1877 qualified in medicine at Dublin University. In 1878 she opened a dispensary for women and children in Edinburgh, Scotland, and a cottage hospital in 1885. In 1886 she founded the Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women. She published American Schools and Colleges (1867), Medical Women (1872), Care of Infants (1884), and Puerperal Fever (1877). Jex‐Blake was born in Hastings, Sussex, England. She was mathematical tutor of Queen's College, London (1858–61). In 1866 she studied medicine in Boston, Massachusetts. She returned to England in 1868 and matriculated in 1869 at the medical faculty of the University of Edinburgh, where she was unable to qualify due to the hostile attitude of the university to the medical education of women.
Joan of Kent (1328–1385) Countess of Kent. She married Edward the Black Prince 1361 and their younger son became Richard II. John of Gaunt took refuge at her home in Kennington when his palace was besieged by Londoners 1376. Her beauty and gentleness earned her the nickname 'Fair Maid of Kent'.
John (I) Lackland (1167–1216) King of England from 1199 and acting king from 1189 during his brother Richard (I) the Lion‐Heart's absence on the Third Crusade. Although branded by contemporaries as cruel and power‐hungry, he is now recognized as a hardworking, able, reforming monarch, who travelled the country tirelessly. He improved the legal system, was the first king to keep records of government writs, and built a large navy that defeated the French fleet before it could invade. He tried vigorously to extend his kingdom, conducting campaigns in Wales, Ireland, and Normandy, and cowing Scotland into a peace treaty. However, he lost Normandy and nearly all other English possessions in France by 1205. The taxes needed to finance his campaigns brought conflict with his barons, and he was forced to sign the Magna Carta in 1215. Later repudiation of it led to the first Barons' War 1215–17, during which he died. He was succeeded by his son Henry III. John was nicknamed 'Lackland' probably because, as the youngest of Henry II's five sons, it was difficult to find a portion of his father's French possessions for him to inherit. In 1205 he disputed the pope's choice of Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury, and Pope Innocent III placed England under an interdict, suspending all religious services, including baptisms, marriages, and burials. John retaliated by seizing church revenues, and was excommunicated. Eventually, John submitted, accepting the papal nominee, and agreed to hold the kingdom as a fief of the
Page379 papacy. After the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, when John's attempt to regain Normandy was defeated by Philip II of France, royal authority collapsed. The barons rebelled and forced him to sign Magna Carta, and the Scots, Welsh, and French attacked England. John Green English historian 'John was the worst outcome of the Plantagenets. He united into one mass of wickedness their insolence, their selfishness, their unbridled lust, their cruelty and tyranny, their shamelessness, their superstition, their cynical indifference to honour or truth.' [On King John I, in A History of the English People]
John Bull imaginary figure who is a personification of England, similar to the American Uncle Sam. He is represented in cartoons and caricatures as a prosperous farmer of the 18th century. The name was popularized by Dr John Arbuthnot's political satire History of John Bull (1712), advocating the Tory policy of peace with France.
John of Gaunt (1340–1399) English noble and politician, fourth (and third surviving) son of Edward III, Duke of Lancaster from 1362. He distinguished himself during the Hundred Years' War. During Edward's last years, and the years before Richard II attained the age of majority, he acted as head of government, and Parliament protested against his corrupt rule. He was called John of Gaunt because he was born in Ghent, Flanders. In 1359 he married Blanche, daughter of Henry, Duke of Lancaster (died 1361), whose title passed to John of Gaunt in 1362; their son became Henry IV of England. Blanche died in 1369 and three years later he married Constance, daughter of Pedro III of Castile. Their daughter Philippa (1359–1415) married King John I of Portugal (1357–1433). John of Gaunt assumed the title of King of Castile in 1372, but his efforts to establish his claim against his rival, Henry of Trastamare, proved unsuccessful; in 1387 he renounced all claims in favour of his daughter Catherine, who married Henry III of Castile (1379–1406) in 1393. Constance died in 1394, and John of Gaunt married his mistress of long standing, Katharine Swynford (c. 1350–1403), with whom he already had four children; they were legitimized in 1397 by charter of Richard II, and founded the house of Beaufort, from whom Henry VII was descended.
John of Lancaster (1389–1435) (Duke of Bedford) English prince, third son of Henry IV. He was regent of France (1422–31) during the minority of Henry VI, his nephew, and protector of England (1422–35). He mostly left English affairs to his brother, Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. He allowed Joan of Arc to be burnt as a witch in 1431 and had Henry VI crowned king of France in 1431. KG 1400, Duke 1414.
Johnson, Amy (1903–1941) English aviator. She made a solo flight from England to Australia in 1930, in 9 1/2 days, and in 1932 made the fastest ever solo flight from England to Cape Town, South Africa. Her
Page380 plane disappeared over the English Channel in World War II while she was serving with the Air Transport Auxiliary. Johnson
(Image © Billie Love)
The pioneering English aviator Amy Johnson, at the start of her record flight to Australia on 5 May, 1930. Having obtained her pilot's certificate with only 50 hours of flying behind her in December 1929, Johnson set out in an attempt to break the solo record. Her De Havilland Moth aircraft, powered by a Gipsy engine, arrived in Port Darwin on 24 May. Although she did not break the record, she received an MBE in recognition of her achievement.
Page381 Amy Johnson British aviator 'Had I been a man I might have explored the Poles or climbed Mount Everest ... my spirit found outlet in the air ..' [Quoted in Margot Asquith Myself When Young] Amy Johnson British aviator 'Had I been a man I might have explored the Poles or climbed Mount Everest, but as it was my spirit found outlet in the air.' [Myself When Young]
jointure a means by which a groom's family prescribed a certain amount of land or possessions for his widow. It prevented her from claiming a third of whatever the husband owned at his death.
Jones, Ernest Charles (1819–1869) German‐born English radical who was a leading figure in the Chartist (see Chartism) reform movement of the mid‐19th century.
Jones, Thomas (1870–1955) Welsh administrator and political adviser. He gave up an academic career (professor of economics at Queen's University, Belfast, in 1909) to become a political adviser. He acted first for Lloyd George, as assistant secretary of the War Cabinet in 1916, and then successively for Bonar Law, Baldwin, and MacDonald. He was also highly successful as a fundraiser.
Joseph, Keith Sinjohn (1918–1994) (Baron Joseph) British Conservative politician. A barrister, he entered Parliament in 1956. He held ministerial posts in 1962–64, 1970–74, 1979–81, and was secretary of state for education and science 1981–86. He was made a life peer in 1987. He served in the governments of Harold Macmillan, Alec Douglas‐Home, and Edward Heath during the 1960s and 1970s, but it was not until Margaret Thatcher came to office in 1979 that he found a prime minister truly receptive to his views and willing to translate them into policies. With her, he founded the right‐wing Centre for Policy Studies, which sought to discover and apply the secrets of the successful market economies of West Germany and Japan.
Junto pejorative name (from the Spanish, junta) given to a group of Whig ministers who held power under William III 1696–97 and Queen Anne 1708–10. The group included Lords Somers, Sunderland, Wharton, Ormond, and Earl Halifax, all Whigs who favoured an aggressive foreign policy against the French in support of British commercial interests.
Page382
K Kay, John (1704–c. 1780) English inventor who developed the flying shuttle, a machine to speed up the work of hand‐loom weaving. He patented his invention in 1733.
Keating, Tom (Thomas Patrick) (1917–1984) English art restorer and forger. Exposed in 1976, he admitted that nine pictures reputedly by Samuel Palmer were his own drawings, and estimated that there were some 2,500 of his fakes in circulation. His aim had not been profit but to expose the fallibility of art experts. Although put on trial at the Old Bailey in 1979, charges were dropped because of his deteriorating health. In 1982 he demonstrated the techniques of the masters in an award‐winning television series. Keating was born in London, and took up painting after winning a box of paints at the age of 10. Invalided out of the navy in 1947, he studied at Goldsmiths' College, London, where he attributed his exam failure to an elitist art world. He took up work restoring paintings, but scandal broke in 1976 when an article in The Times questioned the authenticity of a work by Samuel Palmer sold at auction. In 1983 Keating sold paintings under his own name.
Keeler, Christine (1942–) Englishwoman who became notorious in 1963 after revelations of affairs with both a Soviet attaché and the war minister John Profumo, who resigned after admitting lying to the House of Commons about their relationship.
Keeper of the Great Seal in the Middle Ages, an officer who had charge of the great seal of England (the official seal authenticating state documents). During the Middle Ages the great seal was entrusted to the chancellor. Later, a special Lord Keeper was appointed to take charge of it, but since 1761 the posts of Lord Chancellor and Keeper have been combined.
Keith, George Keith Elphinstone, Viscount Keith (1746–1823) English admiral who fought in the American Revolution, and the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He took over the settlement at the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch in 1796.
Keith, James Francis Edward (1696–1758) (called 'Marshal Keith') Scottish soldier, who served abroad after taking part in the failed Jacobite rebellion of 1715. He rose to the rank of general in Russia (1737) and was made a field‐marshal in the army of the Prussian king Frederick the Great at the outbreak of the Seven Years' War 1756–63. He was killed when the Prussians were beaten by the Austrian army at the battle of Hochkirch in 1758.
Kells, Book of 8th‐century illuminated manuscript of the Gospels produced at the monastery of Kells in County Meath, Ireland. It is now in Trinity College Library, Dublin.
Page383 Kelly, David Christopher (1944–2003) English microbiologist and expert on biological weapons. He came to public attention in July 2003, after the British government named him as a possible Ministry of Defence source for a BBC report, published in May 2003, which alleged that the prime minister's office had 'sexed up' (misrepresented to serve its own political ends) a September 2002 dossier on Iraq's suspected weapons of mass destruction, against the wishes of the intelligence service. Kelly was called to give evidence before the Commons Foreign Affairs Committee on 15 July, at which time he said he did not believe he was the main source. On 17 July he committed suicide, which led to the setting up of the Hutton inquiry to examine the events surrounding his death.
Kempenfelt, Richard (1718–1782) English naval commander who devised a signalling system that was adopted throughout the Royal Navy.
Ken, Thomas (1637–1711) English Anglican churchman, Bishop of Bath and Wells 1685–91. In this post, he tried and acquitted William Sancroft and six other bishops who had refused to read James II's Declaration of Indulgence (the seven bishops trial) in 1688. He was replaced for refusing to swear allegiance to the new English king William of Orange.
Kendal, Ehrengard Melusina von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal (1667–1743) German mistress of King George I. She entered the service of the Electress Sophia of Hannover, George I's mother, in 1690 and soon became his mistress. She followed him to London when he ascended the English throne in 1714, and in 1716 was created duchess of Kendal and granted valuable pensions. She had great influence with the King, but was generally unpopular at court.
Kenilworth, siege of siege of the supporters of Simon de Montfort in Kenilworth castle by forces loyal to Henry III, July–December 1266. Part of the second Barons' War, it followed the barons' defeat at the battle of Evesham in 1265, where de Montfort had been killed. In October 1266, Henry offered peace terms in the Dictum of Kenilworth but the barons held out until December. The terms of the dictum offered the barons a chance of reconciliation with the crown and an opportunity for the dispossesed to recover the lands seized from them after Evesham.
Kennedy, James (1406–1466) Scottish cleric and statesman. As Bishop of St Andrews, he played a prominent part in the politics of Scotland during the minority of James II, and later acted as regent during the minority of James III.
Kenneth two kings of Scotland:
Kenneth I (died 860) (called 'MacAlpin') King of Scotland from about 844. Traditionally, he is regarded as the founder of the Scottish kingdom (Alba) by virtue of his final defeat of the Picts about 844. He invaded Northumbria six times, and drove the Angles and the Britons over the River Tweed.
Kenneth II (died 995) King of Scotland from 971, son of Malcolm I. He invaded Northumbria
Page384 several times, and his chiefs were in constant conflict with Sigurd the Norwegian over the area of Scotland north of the River Spey. He is believed to have been murdered by his subjects.
Kenney, Annie (1879–1953) English suffragette. The only working‐class woman in the leadership of the suffragette movement, she was arrested in 1905 with Christabel Pankhurst (1880–1958) for interrupting a meeting in Manchester, and again in 1906 for disrupting a speech by the prime minister, Henry Campbell‐Bannerman. During Pankhurst's exile in Paris, she took over the leadership, crossing the Channel every week to receive instructions. Kenney was born in Springhead, near Oldham. A full‐time worker from the age of 13, she started a union, then began a correspondence course at Ruskin College, Oxford. She joined the suffragettes after meeting Christabel Pankhurst, but later withdrew from public life in 1926.
Kent, Bruce (1929–) English peace campaigner who was general secretary of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 1980–85. He has published numerous articles on disarmament, Christianity, and peace. He was a Catholic priest until 1987. Kent stood as the Labour party candidate for Oxford West and Abingdon in 1992 and organized a pressure group for tactical voting.
Kent, Edward Augustus (1767–1820) (Duke of Kent and Strathearn) British general. The fourth son of George III, he married Victoria Mary Louisa (1786–1861), widow of the Prince of Leiningen, in 1818, and had one child, the future Queen Victoria.
Kent, George Edward Alexander Edmund (1902–1942) (1st Duke of Kent) English prince, fourth son of George V. He was killed in an air crash in Scotland while flying to Iceland to inspect British forces stationed there.
Kent, kingdom of Anglo‐Saxon kingdom in southeast England, founded by the Jutes when they arrived in Britain as foederati under Hengest and Horsa in the 5th century AD. Kent was the first English kingdom to convert to Christianity in 597 under its king, Ethelbert, although when he died in 616 much of the kingdom reverted to paganism. Kent was divided from 686–90 and then came under the control of Mercia around 762 before being absorbed by Wessex in 825.
Keppel, Augustus, Viscount Keppel (1725–1786) English admiral who became embroiled in a political and military controversy in the late 18th century. A strong Whig supporter, he was named first lord of the Admiralty and created a viscount by the government of Charles Rockingham in 1782.
Ketch, Jack (died 1686) English executioner who included Monmouth in 1685 among his victims; his name was once a common nickname for an executioner.
Page385 Jack Ketch English executioner 'He did not dispose himself for receiving the fatal stroke in such a position as was most suitable.' [Ketch's excuse for bungling the execution of Lord Russell 21 July 1683 in The Apologie of John Ketch Esquire]
Kett, Robert (c.1500–1549) (or Robert Ket) English revolutionary, leader of Kett's Rebellion against land enclosures.
Kett's Rebellion rebellion in 1549 in Norfolk, England, against enclosures of common land. Its leader, Robert Kett, was defeated and executed in 1549.
Keyes, Roger John Brownlow (1872–1945) (1st Baron Keyes of Zeebrugge and of Dover) English admiral and politician who, as commander of the Dover Patrol during World War I, directed the daring raids on the German‐occupied Belgian Channel ports of Zeebrugge and Ostend. He retired from the navy in 1935, having been elected Unionist MP for Portsmouth North, a constituency he represented until he was made a peer in 1943.
Keys, House of elected assembly of the Isle of Man.
khaki election snap election in October 1900 called by the Conservative prime minister, the Earl of Salisbury, in the wake of British successes in the 2nd Boer War. Salisbury hoped to build on the public euphoria at the victories in South Africa to restore his government, but although he won a slightly increased majority he did not manage to make good the losses in his majority since 1895. It is called the 'khaki' election after the colour of the army's uniform in South Africa.
Kickham, Charles Joseph (1828–1882) Irish writer and political activist, born in Cnoceenagaw, County Tipperary. A member of the republican Fenian movement, Kickham contributed to nationalist newspapers, such as The Celt and The Nation, and advocated armed rebellion. He was arrested in 1865 and sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment for treason, but was released in the 1869 amnesty. From the mid‐1870s until his death, Kickham was chairman of the Supreme Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood. Kickham's republican activities and support of land reform through the Tenant League, in addition to his novel Knocknagow; or, the Homes of Tipperary (1873), significantly influenced the Irish nationalist movement in the 19th century. His popularity and renown extends to the large Irish emigrant communities in North America and Britain.
Page386 Kidd, 'Captain' William (c. 1645–1701) Scottish pirate. He spent his youth privateering for the British against the French off the North American coast, and in 1695 was given a royal commission to suppress piracy in the Indian Ocean. Instead, he joined a group of pirates in Madagascar. In 1699, on his way to Boston, Massachusetts, he was arrested, taken to England, and hanged. His execution marked the end of some 200 years of semi‐official condoning of piracy by the British government. 'Captain' (William) Kidd Scottish pirate 'This is a very false and faithless generation.' [Last words before being hanged 1702. He had only surrendered on the sure promise of a free pardon]
Kildare see Fitzgerald family.
Killiecrankie, Battle of in British history, during the first Jacobite uprising, defeat on 27 July 1689 of General Mackay (for William of Orange) by John Graham of Claverhouse, Viscount Dundee, a supporter of James II, at Killiecrankie, Scotland. Despite the victory, Claverhouse was killed by a chance shot and the revolt soon petered out; the remaining forces were routed at Dunkeld on 21 August. The battle was for control of the strategically important Blair Castle in Perthshire. Claverhouse's Highlanders spent several weeks plundering the Lowlands before Mackay moved north from Dunkeld with a force of about 3,000 solders. Claverhouse's army, which was inferior in numbers, was stationed along the Pass of Killiecrankie. Barefoot and armed with claymores, they suddenly rushed upon the marching troops down the steep sides of the gorge. Mackay's men were untrained, and they broke and fled.
Kilmainham Treaty in Irish history, an informal secret agreement in April 1882 that secured the release of the nationalist Charles Parnell from Kilmainham jail, Dublin, where he had been imprisoned for six months for supporting Irish tenant farmers who had joined the Land League's campaign for agricultural reform. The British government realized that Parnell could quell violence more easily out of prison than in it. In return for his release, he agreed to accept the Land Act of 1861. The Kilmainham Treaty marked a change in British policy in Ireland from confrontation to cooperation, with the government attempting to conciliate landowners and their tenants, who were refusing to pay rent. This strategy was subsequently threatened by the Phoenix Park Murders.
Kilmuir, David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe (1900–1967) (1st Earl of Kilmuir) British lawyer and Conservative politician, born in Aberdeen, Scotland. He was solicitor general 1942–45 and attorney general in 1945
Page387 during the Churchill governments. He was home secretary 1951–54 and Lord Chancellor 1954–62. David Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir British lawyer and Conservative politician 'Loyalty was the Tories' secret weapon.' [Anthony Sampson Anatomy of Britain ch. 6]
Kimberley, John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley (1826–1902) English Liberal politician who specialized in foreign affairs and held a number of important government posts in the late 19th century. He was ennobled for his service as lord‐lieutenant of Ireland 1864–66. As head of the Colonial Office, he conceded the self‐government of the Transvaal after the Boers had defeated Britain in the first South African War in 1881; the city of Kimberley in South Africa is named after him.
King, Richard (1730–1806) British admiral. He was in command of the landing party at the capture of Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Hooghly, India, 1756. In 1792 he was appointed governor and commander‐in‐chief of Newfoundland, Canada.
'King and Country' debate controversial debate in Britain in February 1933 in which the Oxford Union, the university's debating society, passed the motion 'this House will in no circumstances fight for its King and its Country'. The debate sent shockwaves throughout the country as many saw it as signalling that Britain's young elite had lost their sense of patriotism, although it probably more accurately reflected a commitment to disarmament after the horrors of World War I.
Kinglake, Alexander William (1809–1891) English historian and travel writer. His tour of the Middle East 1835 gave rise to Eothen 1844, a brilliant account of his travels. He wrote the lengthy Invasion of the Crimea 1863–87, based on Lord Raglan's papers. Alexander William Kinglake British historian 'The spruce beauty of the slender red line ... though the line was slender, it was very rigid and exact.' [Kinglake Invasion of the Crimea vol. iii]
King's Council in medieval England, a court that carried out much of the monarch's daily
Page388 administration. It was first established in the reign of Edward I, and became the Privy Council 1534–36.
King's Friends in the 1760s and 80s in Britain, those politicians, mainly Tories, who supported George III's view that the monarch had the right to choose his own ministers. The king presented this as a preference for good government over an administration riven by parties, but many Whigs regarded it as an attack on constitutional rule. Mostly Tories, who saw the Crown as a bulwark of conservatism. The term was later also applied to an inchoate group of politicians, including Winston Churchill, who supported Edward VIII's wish to marry Wallace Simpson and remain on the throne in the abdication crisis of 1936.
King's Peace in England, form of jurisdiction of the former King's Court. In medieval times criminal matters and offences against public order were within the jurisdiction of local lords and local courts, while the King's Court had jurisdiction over offences committed within the vicinity of the king himself. Such offences were said to have been committed contra pacem Domini, 'against the peace of our Lord (the King)'. The King's Peace was fictitiously extended to the highways and ultimately to the whole realm, so that the King's Court finally acquired a comprehensive jurisdiction. The modern successor of the King's Court, which was held in the presence of the sovereign, is the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court.
Kinneir, John Macdonald (1782–1830) British traveller and diplomat. He published Narrative of Travels in Asia Minor, Armenia, and Kurdistan in 1813–14 1818. He was envoy to Persia 1824–30, and his mediation brought to an end the Russo‐Persian War 1827–28.
Kinnock, Neil Gordon (1942–) British Labour politician, party leader 1983–92 and European Union commissioner 1995–2004. As party leader, succeeding his ally Michael Foot, he moderated his strongly left‐wing position and made Labour a centre‐left mainstream party once again. He expelled members of the hard‐left Militant Tendency and reversed policies on unilateral nuclear disarmament, withdrawal from the European Union, and large‐scale nationalization that he had once advocated. He resigned as party leader after the 1992 general election defeat, and in 1995 became a European commissioner, with the transport portfolio. From 1999 to 2004 he was vice‐president of the European Commission with responsibility for internal reform.
Page389 Kinnock
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Page390 Former Labour leader Neil Kinnock. Born in South Wales in 1942 and educated at Cardiff University, Kinnock was leader of the Labour Party from 1983 until 1992. He reformed the Labour Party, preparing the way for Tony Blair's New Labour government of 1997. Neil Kinnock British Labour politician 'If Margaret Thatcher wins on Thursday, I warn you not to be ordinary, I warn you not to be young, I warn you not to fall ill, and I warn you not to grow old.' [Speech at Bridgend 7 June 1983] Neil Kinnock British Labour politician 'It is inconceivable that we could transform this society without a major extension of public ownership.' [Marxism Today 1983] Neil Kinnock British Labour politician 'Mr Shultz went off his pram.' [Comment after meeting US Secretary of State] Neil Kinnock British Labour politician 'Those who prate on about Blimpish patriotism in the mode of Margaret Thatcher are also the ones who will take millions off the caring services of this country.' [Speech at the Labour Party Conference 1983]
Kinross‐shire former county of east‐central Scotland, merged in 1975 in Tayside Region.
Page391 Kinross was the county town.
Kirkcaldy of Grange, William (c. 1520–1573) Scottish soldier and politician. Although he was a convert early in life to Protestantism, he later championed the cause of Mary Queen of Scots and was put to death for defending Edinburgh Castle against Protestant forces led by James Morton.
Kirkpatrick, Ivone (Augustine) (1897–1964) Irish‐born British diplomat and writer. Kirkpatrick specialized in German affairs, acting as interpreter to Neville Chamberlain during the talks leading to the Munich Agreement with Hitler in 1938, and being appointed British high commissioner in Germany after the war (1950–53). He wrote The Inner Circle, 1959, and Mussolini: Study of a Demagogue, 1964.
Kitchener, Horatio (Herbert) (1850–1916) (1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum) Irish soldier and administrator. He defeated the Sudanese at the Battle of Omdurman in 1898 and reoccupied Khartoum. In South Africa, he was commander‐in‐chief 1900–02 during the Boer War, and he commanded the forces in India 1902–09. Appointed war minister on the outbreak of World War I, he was successful in his campaign calling for voluntary recruitment.
Page392 Kitchener
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Page393 A glass negative by Bassano of the British soldier and statesman Horatio Kitchener, who reconquered the Sudan and later became secretary of state for war during World War I. He was responsible for initiating the large volunteer force, creating a new army of 70 divisions, which was to fight on the western front. His powerful image appeared on recruiting posters which urged 'Your country needs you!' Horatio Herbert, Earl Kitchener of Khartoum Kitchener British soldier and administrator 'I don't mind your being killed, but I object to your being taken prisoner.' [To the Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII) when he asked to go to the Front in World War I, quoted in Viscount Esher's Journal 18 December 1914]
Kitchener armies British volunteer armies raised at the outbreak of World War I at the urging of Lord Kitchener; also known as 'New Armies'.
knight's fee in the 150 years after the Norman Conquest, a grant of land by the Crown which was held by a lord on condition that a knight would perform strict duties as required, such as 40 days' military service or castle duty. Though the fee could be the estate of one man, it was usually granted out in multiples, and it is sometimes said that the most common formula was that for every 5 hides of land granted to a lord, one knight was required by the king. Heirs to a knight's fee who were minors became wards of the Crown, which took control of the land, or granted it to another, until they were of age. This feudal system of tenure ended with the Civil War.
Knollys, Francis (c.1514–1596) English politician and diplomat. A staunch Protestant, he was made the first custodian of Mary Queen of Scots, from 1568 to 1569, during her long imprisonment in England by Elizabeth I.
Knox, John (c. 1505–1572) Scottish Protestant reformer, founder of the Church of Scotland. He spent several years in exile for his beliefs, including a period in Geneva where he met John Calvin. He returned to Scotland in 1559 to promote Presbyterianism. His books include First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women (1558). Originally a Roman Catholic priest, Knox is thought to have been converted by the reformer George Wishart. When Wishart was burned for heresy, Knox went into hiding, but later preached the reformed doctrines.
Page394 Knox
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Page395 An engraving of the Scottish protestant reformer John Knox, by Henry Hondius, 1559. Having fled to Geneva on Mary Tudor's accession to the English throne, he published 'First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women' (1558). A virulent attack on Mary of Guise's regency in Scotland, it expressed his opposition to her both as a Roman Catholic and a female sovereign. John Knox Founder of the Church of Scotland 'The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women.' [Pamphlet title]
Kray, Ronald (1933–1995) and Reginald (1933–2000) British twins who controlled the East End of London with a Mafia‐style operation during the 1960s. Their gang ran drinking clubs and protection rackets, and organized illegal gambling operations. Ronnie Kray shot dead a rival gang member and Reggie stabbed another to death for threatening his brother. They were convicted of murder in 1969, and sentenced to life imprisonment with the recommendation that they serve not less than 30 years.
Kyrle, John (1673–1724) English social reformer who devoted his life to rebuilding and improving conditions in the town of Ross‐on‐Wye in Herefordshire, where his family had been settled for centuries.
Kyteler, Alice (lived 1324) (Dame Alice) in Irish history, a Kilkenny woman accused of heresy and witchcraft in 1324. Dame Alice, having married and outlived four husbands, was charged by the bishop of Ossory, Richard Ledred, with forming and leading a band of witches and sorcerers in the town and environs of Kilkenny. A wealthy woman, through birth as well as through her first marriage, she twice escaped the charges, the second time fleeing to England where she was not heard from again. The accused who remained in Kilkenny, including her son and heir William Outlaw, were prosecuted and, after full admissions of guilt, jailed. In lieu of Dame Alice's arrest, Petronilla of Meath, clearly the situation's scapegoat, was burned alive in the marketplace, the first such execution reported in Ireland.
L Labouchere, Henry Dupré (1831–1912) English diplomat, newspaper proprietor, and politician. In 1864 he entered Parliament as a Liberal, and became one of Gladstone's most loyal supporters. Later he sat as a Radical MP. He owned and edited the newspaper Truth, which exposed several political scandals. His most famous pieces of journalism were the dispatches he sent to the London Daily News under the byline 'A Besieged Resident'
Page396 from the siege of Paris during the Franco‐Prussian War of 1870–71.
Labourers, Statute of legislation in 1351 designed to prevent costs in wages and feudal services from growing out of control in the labour shortage caused by the Black Death. Labourers demanded higher wages from lords. The act was widely unpopular and was one of the causes of the Peasants' Revolt.
Labour Party UK political party based on socialist principles, originally formed to represent workers. It was founded in 1900 and first held office in 1924. The first majority Labour government 1945–51 introduced nationalization and the National Health Service, and expanded social security. Labour was again in power 1964–70, 1974–79, and from 1997 (winning the 2001 general election). The party leader (Tony Blair from 1994) is elected by an electoral college, with a weighted representation of the Parliamentary Labour Party (30%), constituency parties (30%), and trade unions (40%). In 2000, the membership of the Labour Party was 361,000.
Page397 Labour Party
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Page398 A photograph of British politician Barbara Castle. Born in 1911 and educated at Oxford University, Castle became a Labour Party MP in 1945 and was a government minister by 1964. A socialist firebrand, Castle must rank with Margaret Thatcher as one of the most important female politicians in the history of Parliament. Diane Abbott Labour MP 'The honest truth is that if this Government were to propose a massacre of the first‐born, it would still have no difficulty in getting it through the Commons.' [On the perils of landslide victories and 'Stepford Backbenchers' (backbenchers with unquestioning allegiance); Independent on Sunday, 12 July 1998] George Clark British historian 'The disastrous element in the Labour Party is its intellectuals.' [Attributed remark] Gerald Kaufman British Labour politician 'The longest suicide note in history.' [Of the Labour Party's 1983 election manifesto, quoted in D Healey Time of My Life] Peter Mandelson Secretary of State for Trade and Industry 'It will not make a bean of difference to the policy of the party and the direction in which we are going.' [On the election to Labour's National Executive of four left‐wing members; Daily Telegraph, 29 September 1998]
Page399 David Nellist British Labour politician 'The quickest way to become a left‐winger in the Labour Party today is to stand still for six months.' [Remark] Audrey Wise Labour MP for Preston and one of 67 Labour MPs to vote against the government on the Welfare Reform and Pensions Bill 'I don't want you to feel that the only way to be loyal to our Labour Government is to accept without question everything that comes from the Front Bench.' [Hansard, 20 May 1999]
Labour Representation Committee in British politics, a forerunner (1900–06) of the Labour Party. The committee was founded in February 1900 after a resolution drafted by Ramsay MacDonald, and moved by the Amalgamated Society of Railway Workers (now the National Union of Railwaymen), was carried at the 1899 Trades Union Congress (TUC). The resolution called for a special congress of the TUC parliamentary committee to campaign for more Labour members of Parliament. Ramsay MacDonald became its secretary. Following his efforts, 29 Labour members of Parliament were elected in the 1906 general election, and the Labour Representation Committee was renamed the Labour Party.
Lacey, Janet (1903–1988) English philanthropist. As director of the Inter‐Church Aid department 1952–68, she oversaw the foundation of Christian Aid Week in 1957 (renamed Christian Aid in 1964). She later moved to the Family Welfare Association and the Churches' Council for Health and Healing. She was the first woman to preach in St Paul's Cathedral and received an honorary Lambeth Doctor of Divinity in 1975. Her views on aid are expressed in A Cup of Water (1970). Lacey was raised in Sunderland. She worked for the Young Women's Christian Association (YWCA) in Kendal, Dagenham, and at the end of World War II with BAOR (British Army of the Rhine) in Germany. In 1947 she joined the British Council of Churches as youth secretary.
Ladies' Land League Irish peasant‐rights organization set up by Anna and Fanny Parnell in 1881; its supporters and activists were women.
Lamb, Caroline (1785–1828) English writer. Her gothic novel Glenarvon, published anonymously in 1816, reflects her passionate affair with Lord Byron during 1812–13, and contains a caricature portrait of the poet. On their meeting in 1812, she wrote famously in her journal that he was 'mad, bad, and dangerous to know.'
Page400 Lamb was the daughter of Frederick Ponsonby, 3rd Earl of Bessborough, and spent her early childhood in Italy. She married William Lamb (later Viscount Melbourne) in 1805. Her mental instability, noted by her father when she was a child, intensified after her affair with Byron, and her condition deteriorated following a chance encounter with his funeral procession on its way to Newstead in 1824. She separated from her husband in 1925.
Lambert, John (1619–1684) English general. He was a cavalry commander in the English Civil War under Oliver Cromwell (at the battles of Marston Moor, Preston, Dunbar, and Worcester). He supported Cromwell's assumption of the protectorate in 1653, but opposed proposals in 1657 to award him the royal title. In 1658, as leader of the army, he forced the Protector Richard Cromwell to recall the Rump, the remainder of the Long Parliament dissolved in 1653. At the Restoration he was condemned to death, but reprieved and imprisoned for life.
Lamont, Norman Stewart Hughson (1942–) British Conservative politician, chief secretary of the Treasury 1989–90, chancellor of the Exchequer 1990–93, born in the Shetland Islands. In September 1992, despite earlier assurances to the contrary, he was forced to suspend the UK's membership of the European Community (now the European Union) Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). He was replaced as chancellor by Kenneth Clarke in May 1993, after which he became a fierce right‐wing critic of the Major administration. He lost his House of Commons seat in the May 1997 general election. Educated at Cambridge University, Lamont was elected to Parliament in 1972 as member for Kingston upon Thames. He masterminded John Major's leadership campaign. As chancellor of the Exchequer, he firmly backed the UK's membership of the ERM and, despite signs that the pound was in trouble, specifically ruled out devaluation on 10 September 1992. A week later, in the face of mounting international pressure on the pound, he was forced to devalue and withdraw from the ERM, inciting fierce criticism and calls for his resignation.
Lancaster House Agreement accord reached at a conference held in September 1979 at Lancaster House, London, between Britain and representative groups of Rhodesia, including the Rhodesian government under Ian Smith and black nationalist groups. The agreement enabled a smooth transition to the independent state of Zimbabwe in 1980.
Land League Irish peasant‐rights organization, formed in 1879 by Michael Davitt and Charles Stewart Parnell to fight against tenant evictions. Through its skilful use of the boycott against anyone who took a farm from which another had been evicted, it forced Gladstone's government to introduce a law in 1881 restricting rents and granting tenants security of tenure. The Land League was supported by the use of intimidation from the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) an offshoot of the Irish‐American Fenian movement. The IRB ensured that landlords were unable to collect rents and that no other Irish farmers took the unoccupied farms. Support also came from Irish parliamentary nationalists, led by Charles Stewart Parnell, in the House of Commons at Westminster. The combination of intimidation and
Page401 parliamentary action gave the Land League success. By attacking the economic wealth generated by Ireland for Britain and the large Protestant landowners of Ireland, the Land League achieved victory where previous campaigns for rights in Ireland had failed.
land tax in England, a tax on land, based on an assessment of 1692, which became the principal source of crown revenue in the 18th century. It averaged around 20% of rental income, although this could be increased in war time. It was largely superseded by Income Tax.
Lane, Allen (1902–1970) (adopted name of Allen Lane Williams) English publisher and pioneer of paperback books. He founded the paperback publishers Penguin Books Ltd in 1935, a revolutionary step in the trade. Starting with reprints of novels in paper covers at sixpence each, he expanded to other series such as nonfictional Pelicans and children's Puffins, establishing a highly successful publishing concern. Lane was born and educated in Bristol. In 1919 he was apprenticed to the Bodley Head publishing house under its founder and his uncle John Lane (1854–1925). He rose to become managing director before resigning to form Penguin. He was knighted in 1952, and retired as managing director of Penguin in 1969.
Lane, Elizabeth (1905–1988) (born Elizabeth Coulbourn) English lawyer. In 1960 she became the third woman to be appointed QC (Queen's Counsel), and in 1962 she was the first woman circuit court judge. She was made a master of the bench in 1965, and in the same year became the first woman to be appointed a High Court judge, working in the Family Division. In 1971–73 she chaired the committee on the working of the Abortion Act. She was created DBE in 1965. Her early offices included assistant recorder of Birmingham 1953–61, and recorder of Derby and commissioner of the Crown Court at Manchester 1961–62. She retired from the High Court in 1979.
Lanfranc (c. 1010–1089) Italian archbishop of Canterbury from 1070. Following the Norman Conquest, he was the adviser of William (I) the Conqueror. As archbishop he rebuilt Canterbury Cathedral, replaced English clergy with Normans, enforced clerical celibacy, and separated the ecclesiastical from the secular courts. His skill in theological controversy did much to secure the church's adoption of the doctrine of transubstantiation.
Lang, Cosmo Gordon (1864–1945) (Baron Lang of Lambeth) Scottish churchman, archbishop of Canterbury 1928–42. He was renowned as an important reformer of the Anglican Church, and as one of the finest preachers of his day. Under his influence, the Book of Common Prayer was revised to accord with modern usage and thought, and the Church became more broadly based. He also promoted social reform at home, political change in India, and closer links between the Anglican and Nonconformist churches. While he was archbishop of Canterbury, Lang had to deal with the difficult abdication crisis, in which King Edward VIII's wish to marry a divorcee was deemed incompatible with his role as head of the Church of England.
Langland, William (c. 1332–c. 1400) English poet. His alliterative
Page402 The Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plowman (see Piers Plowman) was written in three (or possibly four) versions between about 1367 and 1386. The poem forms a series of allegorical visions, in which Piers develops from the typical poor peasant to a symbol of Jesus, and condemns the social and moral evils of 14th‐century England. It is a masterpiece in combining the depiction of a spiritual pilgrimage with scenes of contemporary social life for a satirical purpose. William Langland English poet 'A glotoun of wordes.' [Piers Plowman, prologue] William Langland English poet 'In a somer seson whan soft was the sonne.' [Piers Plowman, prologue]
Langton, Stephen (c. 1150–1228) English priest who was mainly responsible for drafting the charter of rights, the Magna Carta. He studied in Paris, where he became chancellor of the university, and in 1206 was created a cardinal. When in 1207 Pope Innocent III secured Langton's election as archbishop of Canterbury, King John I refused to recognize him, and he was not allowed to enter England until 1213. He supported the barons in their struggle against John and worked for revisions to both church and state policies. Stephen Langton English priest 'Any service rendered to the temporal king to the prejudice of the eternal King is ... an act of treachery.' [Letter from exile to the baronage of England during the period of papal interdict imposed on King John]
Lansbury, George (1859–1940) British Labour politician, leader in the Commons 1931–35. He was a member of Parliament for Bow from 1910–12 – when he resigned to force a by‐election on the issue of votes for women, which he lost – and again 1922–40. In 1921, while mayor of the London borough of Poplar,
Page403 he went to prison with most of the council rather than modify their policy of more generous unemployment relief. Lansbury founded the Daily Herald in 1912, and edited it until 1922, carrying it on as a weekly throughout World War I. He was the leader of the parliamentary Labour party 1931–35, but resigned (as a pacifist) in opposition to the party's militant response to the Italian invasion of Abyssinia (present‐day Ethiopia).
Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Petty‐Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of Lansdowne (1845–1927) British Liberal Unionist politician, governor general of Canada 1883–88, viceroy of India 1888–93, war minister 1895–1900, and foreign secretary 1900–06. While at the Foreign Office he abandoned Britain's isolationist policy by forming an alliance with Japan and an entente cordiale with France. His letter of 1917 suggesting an offer of peace to Germany created a controversy. Marquess 1866.
Lansdowne, Henry Petty‐Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquis of Lansdowne (1780–1863) English Whig politician, a consistent supporter of the abolition of slavery, free trade, and Catholic emancipation.
Lansdowne, William Petty Fitzmaurice, 1st Marquis of Lansdowne British Whig politician; see Lord Shelburne.
Larkin, James (1876–1947) Irish labour leader. He founded the Irish Transport and General Workers' Union (ITGWU) in 1909. Depressed by his failure in the 1913 Dublin lockout, he went to the USA in 1914. He returned to Ireland in 1923, only to be embroiled in a bitter dispute with William O'Brien, who had built up the ITGWU in his absence. Larkin eventually joined the Labour Party, and was elected to the Dáil (Irish parliament) in 1943. Born of Irish parents in Liverpool, Larkin became a convinced trade unionist and socialist. He was sent to Belfast in 1907 to attempt the unionization of the Belfast docks, where he was confronted by the city's intense sectarianism. In 1912 he persuaded the Irish Trade Union Congress to set up a congress‐based Labour Party. During his stay in the USA he attended the founding convention of the American Communist Party and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment for 'criminal anarchy'.
Laski, Harold Joseph (1893–1950) English political theorist. Professor of political science at the London School of Economics from 1926, he taught a modified Marxism and was active in the Socialist League during the 1930s. He published A Grammar of Politics (1925), a central text of Fabian political science, and The American Presidency (1940). He was chair of the Labour Party 1944–45. Harold Laski English political scientist 'Roosevelt is a Jeffersonian democrat ... Deeply religious, profoundly American, an aristocrat with the magnanimity of spirit which loathes cruelty and special privileges ..'
Page404 [On Franklin D Roosevelt, printed in the New Statesman and Nation, March 1942] Harold Laski British political theorist 'The meek do not inherit the Earth unless they are prepared to fight for their meekness.' [Attributed remark]
Latimer, Hugh (c. 1485–1555) English bishop. After his conversion to Protestantism in 1524 during the Reformation he was imprisoned several times but was protected by cardinal Thomas Wolsey and Henry VIII. After the accession of the Catholic Mary I, he was burned for heresy. Latimer was appointed bishop of Worcester in 1535, but resigned in 1539. Under Edward VI his sermons denouncing social injustice won him great influence, but he was arrested in 1553, once Mary was on the throne, and two years later he was burned at the stake in Oxford. Hugh Latimer English church reformer and bishop 'Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man; we shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England as I trust shall never be put out.' [Attributed remark, to Nicholas Ridley as they were about to be burned at the stake]
Laud, William (1573–1645) English priest; archbishop of Canterbury from 1633. Laud's High Church policy, support for Charles I's unparliamentary rule, censorship of the press, and persecution of the Puritans all aroused bitter opposition, while his strict enforcement of the statutes against enclosures and of laws regulating wages and prices alienated the propertied classes. His attempt to impose the use of the Prayer Book on the Scots precipitated the English Civil War. Impeached by Parliament in 1640, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1645 he was beheaded. William Laud English priest and archbishop of Canterbury 'All that I laboured for ... was that the external worship of God ... might be kept up in uniformity ... decency and some beauty of holiness.' [Laud's answer to articles brought against him in Parliament February 1641]
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William Laud English priest and Archbishop of Canterbury 'I laboured nothing more than that the external public worship of God, too much slighted in most parts of this kingdom, might be preserved.' [At his trial 1644]
Lauderdale, John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale (1616–1682) Scottish politician. Formerly a zealous Covenanter, he joined the Royalists in 1647, and as high commissioner for Scotland 1667–79 persecuted the Covenanters. He was created Duke of Lauderdale in 1672, and was a member of the Cabal ministry 1667–73.
Law, Andrew Bonar (1858–1923) British Conservative politician, born in New Brunswick, Canada, of Scottish descent. He succeeded Balfour as leader of the opposition in 1911, became colonial secretary in Asquith's coalition government 1915–16, chancellor of the Exchequer 1916–19, and Lord Privy Seal 1919–21 in Lloyd George's coalition. He formed a Conservative cabinet in 1922, but resigned on health grounds. Law made a fortune in Scotland as a banker and iron‐merchant before entering Parliament in 1900. Andrew Bonar Law British politician 'If I am a Great man, then a good many of the great men in history are frauds.' [Quoted in Lord Beaverbrook, Politicians and the War] Andrew Bonar Law British politician 'Look at that man's eyes. You will hear more of him later.' [On Benito Mussolini, remark to a secretary, 1922]
Page406 Law, John (1671–1729) Scottish economist. He persuaded the French to set up a Bank of France 1716 and to invest heavily in the colonization of the Mississippi delta before the collapse of the project 1720.
Lawes, John Bennet (1814–1900) English agriculturist who patented the first artificial 'super‐phosphate' fertilizer. In 1843 he established the Rothamsted Experimental Station (Hertfordshire) at his birthplace. Baronet 1882.
Lawrence, John Laird Mair, 1st Baron Lawrence of the Punjab and of Grately (1811–1879) English colonial administrator, governor‐ general of India 1863–69. As lieutenant‐governor of the Punjab, he carried out many social and economic reforms, which earned him the name 'Saviour of the Punjab'. He played a leading role in suppressing the Indian Mutiny of 1857–58. By raising a new army of 59,000 loyal troops, he was able to besiege Delhi and bring about the surrender of rebel forces there after three months, effectively ending the uprising.
Lawrence, T(homas) E(dward) (1888–1935) (called 'Lawrence of Arabia') British soldier, scholar, and translator. Appointed to the military intelligence department in Cairo, Egypt, during World War I, he took part in negotiations for an Arab revolt against the Ottoman Turks, and in 1916 attached himself to the emir Faisal. He became a guerrilla leader of genius, combining raids on Turkish communications with the organization of a joint Arab revolt, described in his book The Seven Pillars of Wisdom (1926). T E Lawrence British soldier and writer 'I was an Irish nobody. I did something. It was a failure. And I became an Irish nobody again.' [Quoted in Wyndham Lewis, Blasting and Bombadiering] T E Lawrence British soldier and writer 'It's the most amateurish, Buffalo‐Billy sort of performance, and the only people who do it well are the Bedouin.' [Letter 1917, describing an attack on a Turkish train]
Layamon (lived c. 1200) English poet. His name means 'law man' or 'judge', and according to his own account he was a priest of Areley (now Areley Kings), Worcestershire. He was the author of the Brut, a chronicle of about 16,000 alliterative lines on the history of Britain from the arrival of Brutus, the
Page407 legendary Roman senator and general, to Cadwalader, which gives the earliest version of the Arthurian legend in English. The Brut is based on the French rendering by Robert Wace of the Latin Historia Regum Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth, with additions from Celtic legend. The first important poem written in Middle English, the Brut is written mainly in alliterative lines but occasionally uses rhyme and assonance; it therefore shows English verse in transition. Two composite manuscript copies survive (housed in the British Museum).
Lee, Arthur Hamilton, 1st Viscount Lee of Fareham (1868–1947) English soldier and politician. He is chiefly remembered for giving his Elizabethan mansion, Chequers to the nation in 1921 as a country residence for prime ministers.
Lee, Jennie (Janet) (1904–1988) (Baroness Lee of Asheridge) British socialist politician. She became a member of Parliament for the Independent Labour Party representing North Lanark at the age of 24, and in 1934 married Aneurin Bevan. Representing Cannock 1945–70, she was on the left wing of the Labour Party. She was on its National Executive Committee 1958–70, became a privy councillor from 1966, and was minister of education 1967–70, during which time she was responsible for founding the Open University in 1969. She was made a baroness in 1970. Her publications include Tomorrow is a New Day (1939) and My Life with Nye (1980).
Lee, Sophia (1750–1824) English writer and dramatist. The success of her play The Chapter of Accidents (1780), enabled her to open a girls' school in Bath. Other works include the verse tragedy Almeyda, Queen of Grenada (1796); a historical novel, The Recess (1783–85); and a lengthy ballad, The Hermit's Tale (1787). Her epistolary novel The Life of a Lover (1804) has autobiographical elements. Her sister Harriet Lee (1757–1851) was also a dramatist.
Leeds, Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds (1632–1712) English politician who served as lord treasurer and chief minister to Charles II 1673–79, and increased the king's revenues. As a strong supporter of an independent Church of England, he opposed the pro‐Catholic policies of Charles and his successor James II, and was instrumental in arranging the marriage between James's daughter Mary of York to the Protestant William of Orange in 1677. He then helped arrange for William to assume the English crown in 1688 (see Glorious Revolution). For his services, he was made duke of Leeds in 1694.
Leese, Oliver William Hargreaves (1894–1978) English soldier who was engaged in many theatres of conflict during World War II, including North Africa and Burma. For a long time, he served under Montgomery, in the British Expeditionary Force in France (1939–40), in the Eighth Army in the Western Desert, and during the Allied invasion of Italy in 1943.
leet in medieval East Anglia, England, administrative subdivision of a hundred for the
Page408 purposes of collecting tax, roughly corresponding to a hide.
Lehmann, Beatrix (1903–1979) English actor. Following her debut in 1924 at the Lyric, Hammersmith, she appeared in many successful plays, including Family Reunion, Peter Ustinov's No Sign of the Dove, and Waltz of the Toreadors. In 1946 she became director‐producer of the Arts Council Midland Theatre Company. She also appeared in films and wrote two novels and several short stories. Lehmann was born in Bourne End, Buckinghamshire, the daughter of journalist Rudolph Chambers Lehmann (1856–1929). Her brother was the poet and essayist John Lehmann and her sister, the novelist Rosamond Lehmann.
Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (c. 1532–1588) English courtier. Son of the Duke of Northumberland, he was created Earl of Leicester in 1564. He led the disastrous military expedition (1585–87) sent to help the Netherlands against Spain. Despite this failure, he retained the favour of Queen Elizabeth I, who gave him command of the army prepared to resist the threat of Spanish invasion in 1588. His father was executed in 1553 for supporting Lady Jane Grey's claim to the throne, and Leicester was himself briefly imprisoned in the Tower of London. His good looks attracted Queen Elizabeth, who made him Master of the Horse in 1558 and a privy councillor in 1559. He was a supporter of the Protestant cause.
Leigh‐Mallory, George (1746–1820) English diplomat. He was ambassador to St Petersburg 1777–82, and became minister at The Hague (1788). He was employed to negotiate the marriage between the Prince of Wales and Caroline of Brunswick (1794), and accompanied the latter to England. He was born in Salisbury, Wiltshire, and educated at Winchester College and Oxford University. He became secretary to the embassy in Madrid in 1767. He was given his peerage for his successful tenure as minister at The Hague.
Leighton, Margaret (1922–1976) English actor. The leading lady in many stage and film productions, she became one of the best‐known actors of her era. Her major plays include Terence Rattigan's Separate Tables in 1956 and Tennessee Williams's Pullitzer prizewinning The Night of the Iguana (1961). She was nominated for an Academy Award for the film The Go‐Between (1971). Leighton was born near Birmingham. She trained for the stage as a teenager, and joined the Old Vic under Laurence Olivier and Ralph Richardson in the 1940s. Her Broadway debut was made in 1946.
Leland, John (c. 1506–1552) English antiquary whose manuscripts have proved a valuable source for scholars. He became chaplain and librarian to Henry VIII, and during 1534–43 toured England collecting material for a history of English antiquities. The Itinerary was published in 1710.
Lemass, Seán Francis (1899–1971) Irish nationalist politician and Taoiseach (prime minister) 1959–66. A long time associate of Éamon de Valera, he was a founder member of the
Page409 Fianna Fáil party (1926), and minister for industry and commerce under de Valera from 1932. His greatest achievements were the modernization of the republic's economy (through industrialization and free trade with Britain) and the improvement of relations with Northern Ireland. In 1965 he made a historic visit to Belfast to meet Northern Ireland's prime minister Terence O'Neill. Lemass joined the nationalist Irish Volunteers at the age of fifteen. He fought at the General Post Office in the Easter Rising of 1916, but escaped deportation. He became an officer in the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and was interned 1920–21. Like de Valera, Lemass rejected the Anglo‐Irish Treaty (1921) which established the Irish Free State within the British Empire, and fought as a republican leader in the Irish Civil War 1922–23 until his capture and imprisonment. Elected to the Dáil Éireann (Irish parliament) in 1924 Lemass, like other republicans, refused to take his seat until 1927. As the chief architect of the republic's economic expansion, he built up Irish industry behind a wall of high tariffs before adopting free trade practices, promoted the foundation of a national shipping company and airline, and made Ireland's first attempt to join the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1961. He succeeded de Valera as prime minister and head of Fianna Fáil in 1959. Ill health prompted his resignation in 1966.
Lentaigne, Walter (1899–1955) British general. He raised and trained the 111th Indian Infantry Brigade which became part of the Chindits. When Wingate was killed March 1944 he took over command of the Chindit operations and carried them to a successful conclusion.
Lenthall, William (1591–1662) English lawyer. Speaker of the House of Commons in the Long Parliament of 1640–60, he played an active part in the Restoration of Charles II. William Lenthall English lawyer 'I have neither eye to see, nor tongue to speak here, but as the House is pleased to direct me.' [Refusing to answer King Charles I's demand concerning the five MPs whom the king wished to arrest 4 January 1642]
Leofric (died 1057) (Earl of Mercia) English nobleman. He was created earl c. 1034 by King Canute, and was a rival of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, supporting Edward the Confessor against him 1051. His wife was Lady Godiva.
Leslie, David, Lord Newark (1601–1682) Scottish soldier. As a lieutenant‐general, he was at the Battle of Marston Moor (1644), routed Montrose at Philiphaugh (1645), and fought in the siege of Newark. He went over to the Royalist side but was taken prisoner in 1651 and was confined in the Tower of London until the Restoration (1660).
Page410 He was the fifth son of the 1st Lord Lindores. He took part in the Thirty Years' War, serving under Gustavus Adolphus. He returned to Scotland about 1640, at the time of the rise of the Covenanters against King Charles I. He joined troops under his kinsman, Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven, who also went over to the king's side. After the Restoration he was created Lord Newark (1661).
Levant Company company formed in 1592 to trade English cloth and tin for oriental silk or Turkish carpets in the eastern Mediterranean. The company was formed by the merger of the Turkey Company (1581) and the Venice Company (1583).
Levellers democratic party in the English Civil War. The Levellers found wide support among Cromwell's New Model Army and the yeoman farmers, artisans, and small traders, and proved a powerful political force from 1647 to 1649. Their programme included the establishment of a republic, government by a parliament of one house elected by all men over 21, elections every year, freedom of speech, religious toleration, and sweeping social reforms, including education for everyone. They were led by John Lilburne, whose wife Elizabeth campaigned for a 'proportional share in the freedom of this commonwealth' for women. Cromwell's refusal to implement this programme led to mutinies by Levellers in the army, which, when suppressed by Cromwell at Burford in 1649, ended the movement. True Levellers (also known as Diggers) were denounced by the Levellers because of their more radical methods.
Leven, Alexander Leslie (c. 1580–1661) (1st Earl of Leven) Scottish general in the English Civil War. He led the Covenanters' army which invaded England in 1640, commanded the Scottish army sent to aid the English Puritans 1643–46, and shared in the Parliamentarians' victory over the Royalists in the Battle of Marston Moor. He became an earl 1641.
Leveson‐Gower, Granville George (1815–1891) (2nd Earl Granville) English politician. He held several cabinet posts 1851–86, including that of foreign secretary 1870–74 and 1880–85 under Gladstone. He supported Gladstone's home rule policy and played a leading part in the decision to send General Gordon to Khartoum 1884. Earl 1846.
Lhuyd, Edward (1660–1709) English scholar and naturalist. In 1690 he became head keeper of the Ashmolean Museum in 1690. He travelled in all the Celtic‐speaking countries and studied their languages. He was born near Oswestry, Shropshire. His two most important publications are Lithophylacii Britannici iconographia (1699), a catalogue of the figured fossils in the Ashmolean Museum, and volume I (the only one published) of his Archaeologica Britannica (1707), a study of Celtic languages that is still useful.
Page411 Libau German merchant ship used to run guns and ammunition to the Irish Republican Army (IRA) for the projected Easter rising 1916 under Roger Casement.
Liberal Party British political party, the successor to the Whig Party, with an ideology of liberalism. In the 19th century it represented the interests of commerce and industry. Its outstanding leaders were Palmerston, Gladstone, and Lloyd George. From 1914 it declined, and the rise of the Labour Party pushed the Liberals into the middle ground. The Liberals joined forces with the Social Democratic Party (SDP) as the Alliance for the 1983 and 1987 elections. In 1988 a majority of the SDP voted to merge with the Liberals to form the Social and Liberal Democrats (SLD), which became known as the Liberal Democrats from 1989. A minority have retained the name Liberal Party. The Liberal Party was officially formed on 6 June 1859, although the term 'Liberals' had been increasingly in use since the 1832 Reform Act. Its formal establishment marked a shift of support for the party from aristocrats to include also progressive industrialists, backed by supporters of the utilitarian reformer Jeremy Bentham, Nonconformists (especially in Welsh and Scottish constituencies), and the middle classes. During the Liberals' first period of power, from 1830 to 1841, they promoted parliamentary and municipal government reform and the abolition of slavery, but their laissez‐faire theories led to the harsh Poor Law of 1834. Except for two short periods, the Liberals were in power from 1846 to 1866, but the only major change was the general adoption of free trade. Liberal pressure forced Prime Minister Robert Peel to repeal the Corn Laws of 1846, thereby splitting the ruling Conservative (or Tory) party. Extended franchise (1867) and Gladstone's emergence as leader began a new phase, dominated by the Manchester school with a programme of 'peace, retrenchment, and reform'. Gladstone's 1868–74 government introduced many important reforms, including elementary education and vote by ballot. The party's left, composed mainly of working‐class Radicals and led by Charles Bradlaugh (a lawyer's clerk) and Joseph Chamberlain (a wealthy manufacturer), repudiated laissez faire and inclined towards republicanism, but in 1886 the Liberals were split over the policy of home rule for Ireland, and many became Liberal Unionists or joined the Conservatives. Except for the period 1892 to 1895, the Liberals remained out of power until 1906, when, reinforced by Labour and Irish support, they returned with a huge majority. Old‐age pensions, National Insurance, limitation of the powers of the Lords, and the Irish Home Rule Bill followed. Lloyd George's alliance with the Conservatives from 1916 to 1922 divided the Liberal Party between him and his predecessor Asquith, and although reunited in 1923 the Liberals continued to lose votes. They briefly joined the National Government (1931–32). After World War II they were reduced to a handful of members of Parliament. However, Liberal thinkers, notably John Maynard Keynes and William Beveridge, had a profound influence on post‐war governments in terms of creation of a welfare state and ideas about government intervention to help manage the economy. A Liberal revival began under the leadership (1956–67) of Jo Grimond and continued under Jeremy Thorpe, who resigned after a period of controversy within the party in 1976. After a caretaker return by Grimond, David Steel became the first party leader in British politics to be elected by party members who were not MPs. Between 1977 and 1978 Steel entered into an agreement to support Labour in any vote of confidence in return for consultation on measures undertaken. After the 1987 general election, Steel suggested a merger of the Liberal Party and the SDP, and the SLD was formed on 3 March 1988, with Paddy Ashdown elected leader in July of that year. From 1989 the SLD became known as the Liberal
Page412 Democrats. Unlike the Council for Social Democracy, which was wound up in 1990, a rump Liberal Party remained after the 1988 Liberal–SDP merger. In 2001 it had 30 local councillors. It contested 14 parliamentary constituencies at the June 2001 general election but won less than 1% of the vote, except in Liverpool West Derby, where, with 15% of the vote, its candidate finished in second position, ahead of the Liberal Democrats.
Liberator, the title given to Simón Bolívar, South American revolutionary leader; also a title given to Daniel O'Connell, Irish political leader; and to Bernardo O'Higgins, Chilean revolutionary.
liberties in the middle ages, freedom from direct royal jurisdiction, usually granted to border territories in return for protecting the border area from raiders. The privilege was granted in cases such as the Marcher Lords on the Welsh border, or in the Palatinate of Durham where the bishop was granted special privileges as a bulwark against the Scots. More restricted liberties provided freedom from prosecution in the king's courts. The most famous of these was that of Westminster Abbey, where sanctuary extended beyond its buildings to much of the city of Westminster, but boroughs or even smaller towns, such as Bewdley, also enjoyed such privileges. As monarchs grew stronger, they resented liberties which served no purpose, as in the case of Wales, but despite efforts by Edward I in particular to subjugate these lordships their privileges remained largely intact until the 16th century.
licensing laws legislation governing the sale of alcoholic drinks. In the UK, sales can only be made by pubs, restaurants, shops, and clubs which hold licences obtained from licensing justices. The hours during which alcoholic drinks can be sold are restricted: licensed premises can sell alcohol between 11 a.m. and 11 p.m. Monday to Saturday, and 12 noon to 10.30 p.m. on Sundays. These hours may be extended for special occasions, by application to the licensing justices. It is illegal to sell alcohol to anyone below the age of 18. From the late 19th century, temperance and nonconformist movements lobbied for tighter restrictions on the consumption of alcohol. In Wales, Sunday closing was enforced from 1881, and in 1913 Scotland was permitted to hold local referenda on licensing issues. Restrictions on pub hours in England was initially introduced as a temporary measure during World War I, not as a morality act, but to improve efficiency on the home front, but the regulations were retained after the war.
Light Brigade, Charge of the see Charge of the Light Brigade. Maréchal Bosquet French marshall 'C'est magnifique, mais ce n'est pas la guerre.
Page413 It is magnificent, but it is not war.' [Remark on the Charge of the Light Brigade 1854]
Lilburne, John (c. 1614–1657) English republican agitator. He was imprisoned 1638–40 for circulating Puritan pamphlets, fought in the Parliamentary army in the English Civil War, and by his advocacy of a democratic republic won the leadership of the Levellers, the democratic party in the Civil War.
Limerick, Treaty of treaty signed 3 October 1691 in Limerick, Ireland, dictating the terms of surrender of the Jacobites who had resisted the invading armies of William III. The Jacobites were granted amnesty or allowed to go into exile and religious tolerance, in particular of Catholics, was guaranteed. This latter promise was broken by Penal Code introduced from 1695 by the Protestant MPs of the Dublin parliament.
Lincoln, Battles of two battles near the town of Lincoln: 2 February 1141 King Stephen was defeated and captured by supporters of Matilda and taken to Bristol. The victory temporarily put Matilda ahead in the battle for the crown, but Stephen was soon exchanged for the earl of Gloucester and she was defeated at the Battle of Winchester in September. 20 May 1217 in the first Barons War, defeat of Prince Louis of France (the future King Louis VIII) and the barons by William Marshall, earl of Pembroke. The victory led to Louis being expelled from his stronghold in southeast England.
Lindsey small Anglo‐Saxon kingdom northwest of the Wash in Eastern England. It was overshadowed by its neighbours and was ruled by Northumbria in the 7th century until it passed into Merician control 678. It was finally overrun by Danish invaders 841. It survived as the Parts of Lindsey, an administrative subdivision of the county of Lincolnshire, until the reorganization of local government 1974.
Lindsey, Robert Bertie, lst Earl of (1582–1642) English admiral. He joined the Spanish expedition of the earls of Essex and Nottingham, and was present at the capture of Cadiz in 1597. In 1628, after the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated, he was appointed admiral of the fleet. He reclaimed parts of the Lincolnshire fens. He was the eldest son of Peregrine Bertie and godson of Queen Elizabeth I. He was knighted in the market‐place of Cadiz after its capture. As admiral of the fleet, he led a failed expedition for the relief of La Rochelle in 1628. He supported Charles I during the Civil War, and died from wounds received at Edgehill.
Lindsey, Parts of former administrative county within Lincolnshire, England. It was the largest of the three administrative divisions (or 'parts') of the county, with its headquarters at
Page414 Lincoln. In 1974 Lindsey was divided between the new county of Humberside (abolished in 1996) and a reduced Lincolnshire.
Lingard, John (1771–1851) English historian. In 1811 he began work on his History of England. The first two volumes appeared in 1819 and the last in 1830. Its accuracy and detachment have preserved its importance as a standard history. He was born in Winchester, and was educated at the English Roman Catholic College at Douai. He was vice‐president of Crookhall College, near Durham 1795–1811. His first book was The Antiquities of the Anglo‐Saxon Church (1806).
linkman person employed to show the way through city streets with lighted torches. They were employed in most cities until the advent of street lighting made them unnecessary.
Lisle, Alicia (c. 1614–1685) Second wife of the regicide, John Lisle, whom she married in 1630. In 1685, she was alleged to have sheltered one of Monmouth's supporters during his rebellion. She was tried before Judge Jeffreys and was beheaded at Winchester. She was the daughter and heiress of Sir White Rockenshaw. After her husband's death in 1664, she retired to Moyles Court, Hampshire.
Lisle, John (c. 1610–1664) English regicide. He was one of the managers at the trial of Charles I, and drew up the form of sentence. When he realized that the Restoration was inevitable, Lisle fled to Switzerland, where.he was murdered by a Royalist Irishman. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford. He became a barrister at the Inner Temple in 1633, and entered Parliament in 1640. He was master of St Cross Hospital, Winchester 1644–49. Lisle was a commissioner of the Great Seal (1649) and placed on the council of state. He was appointed commissioner of the admiralty and the navy in 1660, before the return of Charles II.
Lister, Joseph (1827–1912) (1st Baron Lister) English surgeon. He was the founder of antiseptic surgery, influenced by Louis Pasteur's work on bacteria. He introduced dressings soaked in carbolic acid and strict rules of hygiene to combat wound sepsis in hospitals. He was made a baronet in 1883, and a baron in 1897. The number of surgical operations greatly increased following the introduction of anaesthetics, but death rates were more than 40%. Under Lister's regime they fell dramatically. Joseph Lister English surgeon 'There are people who do not object to eating mutton chop – people who do not even object to shooting pheasant with the considerable chance that it may be only wounded and may have to die after lingering pain, unable to obtain its proper nutriment – and yet consider it something monstrous to introduce under the skin of a guinea pig a little inoculation of some microbe to ascertain its action. These seem to me the most inconsistent views.' [British Medical Journal 1897]
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Liston, Robert (1794–1847) Scottish surgeon. He perfected the complicated method of amputating by flaps. On 21 December 1846 he performed the first major operation under anaesthetic (amputation of the thigh) in Britain. He was born in Ecclemachan, Linlithgow, and educated by his father, the parish minister, and at Edinburgh University. He studied for two years at the London and St Bartholomew's hospitals, returning to Edinburgh in 1818. In 1827 he was appointed surgeon to the Royal Infirmary. In 1834 he returned to London as surgeon at University College Hospital. In 1835 he became professor of clinical surgery at University College. His chief works are Elements of Surgery (1831–32), and Practical Surgery (1837).
Little Moreton Hall outstanding black‐and‐white Tudor house near Congleton, Cheshire, England. It was built in stages throughout the 16th century, the oldest part dating from about 1520. The somewhat random structure is surrounded by a moat, while inside the hall and gallery are decorated with carving and plasterwork. The Hall was presented to the National Trust in 1938.
Liverpool, Charles Jenkinson, 1st Earl of (1729–1809) English statesman. He led the 'King's Friends' party after Bute's retirement. He filled numerous high offices of state in the Grenville, Grafton, North, and Pitt ministries. He was born in Winchester, and educated at Charterhouse and University College, Oxford. He was created Baron Hawkesbury in 1786, and Earl of Liverpool in 1796.
Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl Liverpool (1770–1828) British Tory politician. He entered Parliament in 1790 and was foreign secretary 1801–03, home secretary 1804–06 and 1807–09, war minister 1809–12, and prime minister 1812–27. His government conducted the Napoleonic Wars to a successful conclusion, but its ruthless suppression of freedom of speech and of the press aroused such opposition that during 1815–20 revolution frequently seemed imminent. He became an earl in 1808.
livery and maintenance in England, the traditional marks of a man's relation to his lord; livery being the uniform of the lord and maintenance the help a lord would give his followers in legal cases, often by illegal means or coercion of the courts. The practice led to widespread corruption and abuses of the legal system and Henry VII passed a series of acts against it but these largely amounted to little more than a system of licenses. Until the advent of a standing army in the 17th century kings depended on their lords having strong retinues, and so could do little to act against their followers.
Livingstone, David (1813–1873) Scottish missionary explorer. In 1841 he went to Africa, reaching Lake Ngami in 1849. He followed the Zambezi to its mouth, saw the Victoria Falls in 1855, and went to East and Central Africa 1858–64, reaching Lakes Shirwa and Nyasa. From 1866, he tried to find the source of the River Nile, and reached Ujiji in Tanganyika in November 1871. British explorer Henry Stanley joined Livingstone in
Page416 Ujiji. Livingstone not only mapped a great deal of the African continent but also helped to end the Arab slave trade. David Livingstone Scottish physician, missionary, and explorer 'Men are immortal until their work is done.' [Letter describing the death of Bishop Mackenzie March 1862]
Llewelyn two princes of Wales:
Llewelyn I (1173–1240) Prince of Wales from 1194. He extended his rule to all Wales not in Norman hands, driving the English from northern Wales in 1212, and taking Shrewsbury in 1215. During the early part of Henry III's reign, he was several times attacked by English armies. He was married to Joanna, the illegitimate daughter of King John.
Page417 Llewelyn I
(Image © Research Machines plc)
Page418 Dolbadarn castle in Snowdonia, Wales, dates from the early 13th century and was probably built by Llewelyn I, Prince of Wales. Later in the century, Owain Goch was kept prisoner in the castle for 20 years, following his unsuccessful attempt to overturn his brother Llewelyn II. Set strategically on a knoll commanding the entrance to Llanberis Pass, the remains of the castle's main circular tower are almost 15 m/50 ft high.
Llewelyn II ap Gruffydd (c. 1225–1282) Prince of Wales from 1246, grandson of Llewelyn I. In 1277 Edward I of England compelled Llewelyn to acknowledge him as overlord and to surrender southern Wales. His death while leading a national uprising ended Welsh independence.
Lloyd, (John) Selwyn (Brooke) (1904–1978) (Baron Selwyn Lloyd) British Conservative politician. He was foreign secretary 1955–60 and chancellor of the Exchequer 1960–62. He was made a baron in 1976. He was responsible for the creation of the National Economic Development Council, but the unpopularity of his policy of wage restraint in an attempt to defeat inflation forced his resignation. He was Speaker of the House of Commons 1971–76. John, Baron Selwyn Lloyd British Conservative politician 'I have never believed in the infallibility of governments – If a Minister is right oftener than he is wrong it is a considerable achievement.' [The New York Times, 'Ideas and Men' 23 May 1965]
Lloyd, John (lived 15th century) (called 'John Scolvus' (John the skilful)) Welsh sailor who carried on an illegal trade with Greenland and is claimed to have reached North America, sailing as far south as Maryland, in 1477 (15 years before the voyage of Columbus).
Lloyd, Selwyn British Conservative politician; see Selwyn Lloyd.
Lloyd George, David, 1st Earl Lloyd‐George of Dwyfor (1863–1945) British Liberal politician, prime minister 1916–22. A pioneer of social reform and the welfare state, as chancellor of the Exchequer 1908–15 he introduced old‐age pensions in 1908 and health and unemployment insurance in 1911. High unemployment, intervention in the Russian Civil War, and use of the military police force, the Black and Tans, in Ireland eroded his support as prime minister. The creation of the Irish Free State in 1921 and his pro‐Greek policy against the Turks following the Greek invasion of Anatolia (Asian Turkey) caused the collapse of his coalition
Page419 government. Born in Manchester of Welsh parentage, Lloyd George was brought up in north Wales, became a solicitor, and was member of Parliament for Caernarvon Boroughs from 1890. During the Boer War, he was prominent as a pro‐Boer. His 1909 budget (with graduated direct taxes and taxes on land values) provoked the Lords to reject it, and resulted in the Act of 1911 limiting their powers. He held ministerial posts during World War I until 1916 when there was an open breach between him and Prime Minister Asquith, and he became prime minister of a coalition government. Securing a unified Allied command, he enabled the Allies to withstand the last German offensive and achieve victory. After World War I he had a major role in the Versailles peace treaty. In the 1918 elections, he achieved a huge majority over Labour and Asquith's followers. He had become largely distrusted within his own party by 1922, and never regained power. He was made an earl in 1945. David Lloyd George British Liberal prime minister 'A fully‐equipped duke costs as much to keep up as two Dreadnoughts; and dukes are just as great a terror and they last longer.' [Speech at Newcastle 9 October 1909] David Lloyd George British Liberal prime minister 'Four spectres haunt the poor – old age, accident, sickness and unemployment. We are going to exorcise them. We are going to drive hunger from the hearth. We mean to banish the workhouse from the horizon of every workman in the land.' [Speech, 1910] David Lloyd George British Liberal prime minister 'He had sufficient conscience to bother him, but not sufficient to keep him straight.' [Of Ramsay MacDonald, quoted in A J Sylvester Life with Lloyd George] David Lloyd George British Liberal prime minister 'He is rather like one of those revolving lighthouses which radiate momentary gleams of revealing light far out into the surrounding gloom, and then relapse into complete darkness.' [Attributed remark, referring to Lord Kitchener]
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David Lloyd George British Liberal prime minister 'The finest eloquence is that which gets things done; the worst is that which delays them.' [Speech at Paris Peace Conference January 1919] David Lloyd George British Liberal prime minister 'What is our task? To make Britain a fit country for heroes to live in.' [Speech at Wolverhampton, 24 November 1918] David Lloyd George British politician 'Winston would go up to his creator and say that he would very much like to meet His Son, about Whom he had heard a great deal and, if possible, would like to call on the Holy Ghost. Winston loved meeting people.' [On Winston Churchill. Quoted in A J Sylvester, Diary, January 1937]
Lloyd George, Lady Megan (1902–1966) English politician. The younger daughter of the former prime minister, the 1st Earl Lloyd George, she became Liberal MP for Anglesey in 1929. She retained the seat until her defeat at the general election in 1951. A pronounced Radical in her views, in 1955 she joined the Labour party, re‐entering Parliament as a Labour MP in 1957. She was born in Criccieth, and was educated at Banstead and in Paris.
Lloyd of Dolobran, George Ambrose Lloyd, 1st Baron (1879–1941) English diplomat, administrator, and statesman. He was governor of Bombay (now Mumbai) 1918–23. During that time, he had to deal with the disorders following the breakdown of negotiations between the viceroy, Lord Reading, and the Indian faction led by Gandhi. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. During World War I he served in Egypt and Gallipoli, and later in Mesopotamia, organizing Kitchener's intelligence service in the East. He was Conservative MP for Staffordshire 1910–18, and for Eastbourne 1924–25. In 1925 he was appointed high commissioner for Egypt and the Sudan. He was recalled by the
Page421 Labour government in 1929, probably because of his conduct in refusing to grant concessions there to nationalist agitation. When Churchill formed his Cabinet in May 1940, Lloyd was appointed colonial secretary, but he died soon after.
Loftus, Adam (c.1533–1606) English‐born Protestant archbishop of Dublin 1567–1606 and founder of Ireland's first university, Trinity College, Dublin, in 1592. Though often portrayed as an insensitive enforcer of the Elizabethan Reformation and as a devious self‐promoter and nepotist, Loftus is now regarded as a shrewd and able administrator whose attempts to persuade his clergy to accept doctrinal change were hampered both by the entrenched conservative resistance and by the indifference and occasional opposition of several secular governors. Loftus came to acknowledge the defeat of his efforts among the Dublin clergy and laity in the 1580s, but his greatest achievement came with the establishment of Trinity College, which was intended to serve as a seminary for an indigenous Protestant clergy. By the time of his death, however, the college had abandoned its missionary ambitions and had become a centre of Puritan exclusiveness.
Lollard follower of the English religious reformer John Wycliffe in the 14th century. The Lollards condemned the doctrine of the transubstantiation of the bread and wine of the Eucharist, advocated the diversion of ecclesiastical property to charitable uses, and denounced war and capital punishment. They were active from about 1377; after the passing of the statute De heretico comburendo ('The Necessity of Burning Heretics') in 1401 many Lollards were burned, and in 1414 they raised an unsuccessful revolt in London, known as Oldcastle's Rebellion.
Lombard, Peter (1554–1625) Archbishop of Armagh and active promoter of the Irish Counter‐Reformation. Lombard was born into an Old English family in Waterford, and studied at Louvain in 1575, later becoming professor of philosophy and theology there. While in Rome in 1598, he wrote De regno Hiberniae sanctorum insula commentarius to secure papal support for the rebellion of Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone, against English government forces which had begun in 1593. In the aftermath of O'Neill's defeat in 1603 and the subsequent Flight of the Earls from Ireland in 1607, Lombard advocated a conciliatory policy toward James I to reduce anti‐Catholic feeling, arguing for his recognition as king by the Irish, criticizing confrontation with the English government in Ireland, and discouraging plans for renewed rebellion. Estranged from the exiled O'Neill, Lombard pursued a successful career in the Vatican and was actively involved in several doctrinal decisions, including the condemnation of Copernicus in 1616, who had defied church doctrine with his hypothesis that the Sun was the centre of the Solar System. Despite plans to assume an Irish see, he never returned to Ireland.
London Bridge bridge over the River Thames in the centre of London, from the City of London to Southwark. A bridge was first built near the current site by the Romans in about AD 80, and several wooden bridges were built on the site until replaced with a stone bridge at the end of the 12th century. In the middle ages, the bridge was crowded with houses and shops. A new bridge was built by John Rennie 1824– 34 which lasted until 1968 when it was bought by a US oil company, disassembled, and reconstructed as a tourist attraction in Arizona in
Page422 1971. The current bridge dates from then.
London County Council (LCC) former administrative authority for London created in 1888 by the Local Government Act; it incorporated parts of Kent, Surrey, and Middlesex in the metropolis. It was replaced by the Greater London Council 1964–86. Relations between the LCC and the government of the day were frequently discordant, in part because more often than not the two were in the hands of opposing parties.
Londonderry, Charles Stewart Henry Vane‐Tempest‐Stewart (1878–1949) British statesman. He was secretary of state for air 1931–35. Churchill considered that the great achievement of Londonderry's period of office was the designing and promotion of the Hurricane and Spitfire fighters, which proved vital in the Battle of Britain. He was educated at Eton and Sandhurst. From 1906 to 1915, when he succeeded to the title, he was Conservative MP for Maidstone. In the coalition government he was under‐secretary for air and vice‐president of the Air Council 1920–21. He gave up the post to join the government of Northern Ireland, as minister of education and leader of the Senate. After the settlement of the boundary question he returned to England and in 1931 became secretary of state for air with a seat in the Cabinet. When Baldwin became prime minister in 1935 he removed Londonderry from the Air Ministry and made him lord privy seal. After the general election in November 1935 he dropped Londonderry altogether.
Londonderry, Siege of siege of Londonderry, Northern Ireland, in 1689 by the Jacobite forces of James II, during their fight against the succession of William III to the throne after the Glorious Revolution. Beginning in April 1688, the siege lasted 105 days, until William III's fleet relieved the town in July 1689 and the Jacobites withdrew. In December 1688 a group of Catholic soldiers sent to occupy Londonderry was prevented from entering the town when 13 local apprentice boys closed the gates against the advancing army. The main Jacobite army invested the town in April 1689, and James II expected immediate surrender. However, the townspeople threw out their governor, General Lundy, who wished to surrender, and defended the town. After a series of bombardments and attacks failed, the besiegers attempted to starve out the town, placing a great boom across the River Foyle. Famine ensued, and the defenders were reduced to eating leather and rats. A flotilla of English ships waited in Lough Foyle, but was unwilling to try to break the boom. Eventually, on 30 July, when the town could hold out no longer, William ordered the ships to run the boom. The leading ship – the Mountjoy – burst the boom, but was stranded on the mud until the rising tide carried it free, and the ships were able to resupply the townspeople. The next day, the Jacobite army lifted the siege. The success of the Protestant defenders is still celebrated annually in two marches by the Londonderry Apprentice Boys – one in December to commemorate the closing of the gates, and the other in August to celebrate the relief of the town.
London: history London's history is essentially that of two cities: Westminster, the UK's political and administrative centre, seat of the government and royal court; and the City of London, the capital's economic centre, with a separately evolved administration in the corporation of the City of London. London became the administrative
Page423 capital of the British Empire and the economic nerve centre of Britain's great trading empire.
London, Museum of museum of London's history. It was formed by the amalgamation of the former Guildhall (Roman and medieval) and London (Tudor and later) Museums, housed from 1976 in a building at the junction of London Wall and Aldersgate, near the Barbican.
London Working Men's Association (LWMA) campaigning organization for political reform, founded in June 1836 in the UK by William Lovett and others, who in 1837 drew up the first version of the People's Charter (see Chartism). It was founded in the belief that popular education, achieved through discussion and access to a cheap and honest press, was a means of obtaining political reform. By 1837 the LWMA had 100 members.
longbow longer than the standard bow, made of yew, introduced in the 12th century. They were favoured by English archers in preference to the cross bow, as the longer bow allowed arrows of greater weight to be fired further and more accurately. They were highly effective in the Hundred Years' War, to the extent that the French took to removing the first two fingers of prisoners so that they would never again be able to draw a bow.
Longchamps, William de (died 1197) Norman administrator and cleric. He became bishop of Ely and Chancellor of England during the reign of Richard I. He was a Norman of humble origin, whom Richard I made bishop of Ely in 1189. Afterwards, when the king joined the crusade (1190), de Longchamps was made joint‐justiciar with Hugh de Puiset, Bishop of Durham. By becoming papal legate in 1190, de Longchamps united supremacy in Church and State. Though loyal to Richard, his scorn of everything English and his burdensome taxation aroused such a storm of popular dislike that it was not difficult for Richard's brother John to arrest and imprison him. He escaped and joined Richard in Germany. He died at Poitiers.
Longford, Frank (Francis Aungier) Pakenham (1905–2001) (7th Earl of Longford) British Labour politician. He was brought up a Protestant but became a leading Catholic and an advocate of penal reform. He worked in the Conservative Party Economic Research Department 1930–32, yet became a member of the Labour Party and held ministerial posts 1948–51 and 1964–68. Earl 1961. Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford Anglo‐Irish Labour politician 'The male sex still constitute in many ways the most obstinate vested interest one can find.' [Speech in House of Lords 23 June 1963]
Page424 Long Parliament English Parliament 1640–53 and 1659–60, that continued through the English Civil War. After the Royalists withdrew in 1642 and the Presbyterian right was excluded in 1648, the remaining Rump ruled England until expelled by Oliver Cromwell in 1653. Reassembled in 1659–60, the Long Parliament initiated the negotiations for the Restoration of the monarchy.
Long Range Desert Group highly mobile British penetration force formed in July 1940 to carry out reconnaissance and raids deep in the desert of North Africa. After the successful conclusion of the North African campaign 1942, the group was redeployed to carry out operations in Greece, Italy, and Yugoslavia. It was disbanded in August 1945. At its full strength in March 1942, it had 25 officers, 324 soldiers, and 110 vehicles.
Lord Privy Seal until 1884, the UK officer of state in charge of the great seal to prevent its misuse. The honorary title is now held by a senior cabinet minister who has special nondepartmental duties. Until the reign of Henry VIII the office was usually held by a churchman. He was appointed originally to keep the privy seal of the king, so that no independent grants might be made without the knowledge of the king's council. His duties were abolished in 1884, but the office still exists and is generally held by a member of the cabinet, who is entrusted with special duties. The current (1998) Lord Privy Seal is also the leader of the House of Lords, the Labour peer Lord Richard.
Lords of the Articles Scottish parliamentary committee which supervised all legislation to be presented to the full Parliament, which could not debate what the Lords proposed, only reject or amend. Though of 15th century origin, the committee became a vital instrument of royal control in the early 17th century, as James VI's revival of episcopacy allowed him to use crown‐appointed bishops to dominate the committee. The Covenanters abolished the system, but with the restoration of the Stuart monarchy the Lords reappeared. They were finally abolished 1690.
Lords of the Congregation association of Scottish noblemen formed 1557 to further Protestantism by ousting the French‐backed Catholic regent, Mary of Guise. When Mary attempted to suppress Protestant preachers 1559, they rose in outright rebellion against Mary and the French. The lords of the Congregation concluded the first Treaty of Berwick with Queen Elizabeth I January 1560, securing English intervention and the withdrawal of the French. The Congregation was left in control of Scotland and the Reformation parliament banned the saying of Mass, rejected papal authority, and introduced an essentially Calvinist religious system.
Louis, Prince of Battenberg (1854–1921) German‐born British admiral who took British nationality in 1917 and translated his name to Mountbatten. He married Princess Victoria, granddaughter of Queen Victoria, and was the father of Louis, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma.
Lovat, Simon Fraser (c. 1667–1747) (12th Baron Lovat) Scottish
Page425 Jacobite. Throughout a political career lasting 50 years he constantly intrigued with both Jacobites and Whigs, and was beheaded for supporting the 1745 rebellion. Baron 1733.
Lovett, William (1800–1877) In Britain, moderate Chartist who drafted the Peoples' Charter of 1838. Originally a cabinet maker, along with a number of other skilled craftsmen he helped found the London Working Men's Association in 1836. He believed that democratic reform could be achieved peacefully and that technological innovation might be of benefit to working men's conditions.
Lowe, Hudson (1769–1844) Irish‐born English general. He entered the army in 1787. After the outbreak of war with France in 1793, he saw active service in Corsica, Gibraltar, Minorca, and Egypt. In 1815 he was appointed custodian of Napoleon and governor of St Helena, a post he retained until Napoleon's death in 1821. He was born in Galway. From 1825–30 he commanded British forces in Ceylon.
loyalism movement in Northern Ireland that defends the principle of unionism and totally rejects any change in the status or government of Northern Ireland that might threaten its links with the UK. Loyalists will either use violence, or support the use of violence, to ensure that this link is maintained. The roots of modern loyalist paramilitary groups lie in the Protestant Orange Order established in 1795 and the formation of the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) in 1912. Both groups had the aim of promoting and defending the link between Ireland and Britain, in opposition to the movements of Irish nationalism and Irish republicanism.
Loyalist member of approximately 30% of the US population who remained loyal to Britain in the American Revolution. Many Loyalists went to eastern Ontario, Canada, after 1783. Known as Tories, most were crown officials, Anglican clergy, and economically advantaged, although they were represented in every segment of colonial society. The term also refers to people in Northern Ireland who wish to remain part of the UK rather than unifying with the Republic of Ireland. Those espousing loyalism in Northern Ireland are willing to use, or support the use of, violence to achieve this aim.
Lucan, George Charles Bingham, 3rd earl of (1800–1888) British soldier who mistakenly ordered the Charge of the Light Brigade at the Battle of Balaclava 1854. He was commander of the light cavalry division but misinterpreted ambiguous orders from Lord Raglan, the British commander‐in‐chief, and led a charge on a heavily defended Russian gun position, with heavy casualties. He was later promoted to field marshal.
Luddite one of a group of people involved in machine‐wrecking riots in northern England
Page426 1811–16. The organizer of the Luddites was referred to as General Ludd, but may not have existed. Many Luddites were hanged or transported to penal colonies, such as Australia. The movement, which began in Nottinghamshire and spread to Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire, and Yorkshire, was primarily a revolt against the unemployment caused by the introduction of machines in the Industrial Revolution.
Ludford Bridge, Rout of (or Ludlow Bridge) in the Wars of the Roses, Lancastrian victory over Yorkist forces 12–13 October. 1459 at Ludford, Shropshire. Richard, Duke of York, had joined forces with the Earl of Salisbury in a retreat to his home at Ludlow Castle. They were confronted by a larger Lancastrian army across the River Teme at Ludford Bridge and Richard's army disintegrated. The Lancastrians sacked Ludlow Castle, and he fled to Ireland with his supporters and his son, Edward.
Ludlow, Edmund (c. 1617–1692) English Parliamentarian and regicide. During the Civil War he fought at Worcester and Edgehill (1642). Elected MP in 1646, he signed Charles I's death warrant (1649). He opposed Cromwell as protector, and retired. In 1659 he became MP for Hindon. At the Restoration (1660) he fled to Switzerland, where he died. He was born in Maiden Bradley, Wiltshire, and educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and the Inner Temple. He was one of the promoters of Pride's Purge in 1648. In 1651 Ludlow was sent to Ireland as lieutenant‐general of horse, and on the death of Ireton, took over the chief command. His memoirs were published (1698–99) and are valuable for their insight into the republican opposition to Cromwell.
Lugard, Frederick John Dealtry (1858–1945) (1st Baron Lugard) British colonial administrator. He served in the army 1878–89 and then worked for the British East Africa Company, for whom he took possession of Uganda in 1890. He was high commissioner for northern Nigeria 1900–06, governor of Hong Kong 1907–12, and governor general of Nigeria 1914–19.
Lutine British bullion ship that sank in the North Sea in 1799. Its bell, salvaged in 1859, is at the headquarters in Lloyd's of London, the insurance organization. It is sounded once when a ship is missing and twice for good news.
Luttrell Psalter illuminated manuscript executed in 1340 in East Anglia (British Museum, London). The Psalter represents the art of the East Anglian School in its decline, but its marginal illustrations are of great value in depicting the English life and labour of the time. It was made for Geoffrey Luttrell of Irnham, Lincolnshire, England. He appears in one of the miniatures with his wife Agnes Sutton and his daughter‐in‐law Beatrice Scrope.
Lynch, Jack (John Mary) (1917–1999) Irish politician, Taoiseach (prime minister) 1966–73 and 1977–79, and leader of Fianna Fáil 1966–79. Lynch entered the Dáil (lower chamber of the Irish parliament) in 1948 and served in various ministerial capacities, before emerging as the surprise winner of the contest to succeed Lemass as Fianna Fáil leader in 1966. Lynch continued
Page427 the conciliatory policies of his predecessor towards Northern Ireland, visiting O'Neill in Belfast in December 1967, and receiving the Northern Irish premier in Dublin the following month. The renewed violence in the North however destabilized Lynch's government, and its internal conflicts burst into the public arena in May 1970, when Lynch sacked his finance minister, Charles Haughey, and his minister of agriculture and fisheries, Neil Blaney, for allegedly using government money to import arms for the IRA. There was also a political aspect to the affair, since both Haughey and Blaney harboured leadership aspirations, and hoped to reveal Lynch's weakness on the Northern Ireland issue. Lynch narrowly lost the election of 1973, but regained power in 1977. However, serious economic mismanagement by his government, and the reemergence of personal and political tensions within the party led to Lynch's sudden decision to resign in 1979.
Lynedoch, Thomas Graham, 1st Baron (1748–1843) British general. He was aide‐de‐camp to Sir John Moore in Sweden and in Spain, and was present at the Corunna retreat. His most memorable victory was the defeat of the French at Barossa in March 1811. After that, he became second‐in‐command to Wellington for the remainder of the Peninsular War. In 1793 he had joined Hood's fleet in the Mediterranean as a volunteer. On returning home he raised a battalion known as the 'Perthshire Volunteers'. He became brevet‐colonel in 1796, and was appointed British military commissioner with the Austrian army in Italy in 1798. He was created Baron Lynedoch of Balgowan in 1814.
Lyttelton, Alfred (1857–1913) British politician and athlete. He was secretary of state for the colonies 1903–05, when he was much criticized for his conduct of African affairs. He was a famous athlete in his day, playing cricket and football for England. He was also amateur champion of real tennis 1882–95. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1895 he became a Liberal‐Unionist MP.
Lytton, (Edward) Robert Bulwer (1831–1891) (1st Earl of Lytton) British colonial administrator. As viceroy of India 1876–80, he pursued a controversial 'Forward' frontier policy. Only son of the novelist Bulwer Lytton, he was himself a poet under the pseudonym Owen Meredith, writing King Poppy 1892 and other poems. Edward Bulwer‐Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton British diplomat 'Art is Nature made by Man / To Man the interpreter of God.' [The Artist]
Lytton, Victor Alexander George Robert Bulwer Lytton, 2nd Earl (1876–1947) British administrator, statesman, and author. He was briefly viceroy of India while Lord Reading was absent on leave. He is best
Page428 remembered for his sustained work for international goodwill and understanding with the League of Nations after World War I, and with the United Nations after World War II. He was born in Simla, India. He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He began his public career in 1901 as private secretary to George Wyndham, chief secretary for Ireland. He was civil lord of the Admiralty in 1916, and again in 1919. He was British commissioner for propaganda, France, in 1918, and parliamentary under‐secretary of state for India, under Edwin Montagu, in 1920. He was appointed to an India Office committee on the political claims of Burma, and earned a reputation for sympathy with Indian aspirations. He was governor of Bengal from 1922 to 1926. He was the son of the 1st Earl of Lytton, whom he succeeded in 1891.
M McAdam, John Loudon (1756–1836) Scottish engineer, inventor of the macadam road surface. It originally consisted of broken granite bound together with slag or gravel, raised for drainage. Today, it is bound with tar or asphalt. McAdam introduced a method of road building that raised the road above the surrounding terrain, compounding a surface of small stones bound with gravel on a firm base of large stones. A camber, making the road slightly convex in section, ensured that rainwater rapidly drained off the road and did not penetrate the foundation. By the end of the 19th century, most of the main roads in Europe were built in this way.
Macartney, George Macartney, 1st Earl (1737–1806) English diplomat and administrator. He was chief secretary for Ireland 1769–72, and sat in the Irish Parliament. He was later the first British ambassador to China (1792). He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. For two successive five‐year periods, from 1775 to 1785, he was governor of Grenada and Madras (now Chennai) respectively. He was governor of Cape Colony 1796–98.
Macbeth (c. 1005–1057) King of Scotland from 1040. The son of Findlaech, hereditary ruler of Moray and Ross, he was commander of the forces of Duncan I, King of Scotland, whom he killed in battle in 1040. His reign was prosperous until Duncan's son Malcolm III led an invasion and killed him at Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire. He was probably the grandson of Kenneth II and married Gruoch, the granddaughter of Kenneth III. Shakespeare's tragedy Macbeth was based on the 16th‐century historian Holinshed's Chronicles.
MacBride, Seán (1904–1988) Irish revolutionary, politician, lawyer, and peace campaigner. He became chief of staff of the IRA in 1936 but left the movement after the 1937 constitution, and broke with it completely over its 1939 bombing campaign. He won a reputation as a great barrister for his defence of IRA suspects during the war years and founded Clann na Poblachta (Children of the Republic) in 1946. He took his party into coalition as part of the interparty government, 1948–51, in which he was minister for external affairs, and split
Page429 the second interparty government in 1957 over its handling of the IRA's border campaign. He shared the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1974 with Japanese politician Eisaku Sato for his campaign for human rights. After leaving politics in 1961 MacBride began a new career in human rights. He was secretary general of the International Commission of Jurists 1963–70, and chair of Amnesty International 1961–74. He was co‐author of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights and was awarded the Lenin peace prize in 1977. MacBride was the son of Maj John MacBride, who was executed as a rebel in the Easter Rising of 1916, and Maud Gonne, the radical nationalist and muse of W B Yeats. Born in Paris, he was educated there and at University College, Dublin. He joined the IRA during the Anglo‐Irish War (1919–21) and supported the republicans who opposed the Anglo‐Irish Treaty (1921).
McCudden, James Thomas Byford (1895–1918) British fighter pilot in World War I. McCudden was credited with shooting down at least 54 enemy aircraft by the time of his death in a flying accident 8 July 1918 and was extensively decorated throughout the war.
MacDiarmada, Seán (1884–1916) (also known as John MacDermott) Irish republican, a leading organizer of the militant Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB). From 1910 onwards, he edited the movement's newspaper Irish Freedom. He played a major role in preparing the Irish Volunteers for the Easter Rising of 1916. He was executed by the British for his part in the insurrection. Born in Kiltyclogher, County Leitrim, MacDiarmada campaigned unsuccessfully for Sinn Fein in 1908, but was already actively involved in reviving the moribund IRB. His agents also infiltrated the Gaelic Athletic Association, the Gaelic League, and later the Irish Volunteers.
MacDonald, (James) Ramsay (1866–1937) British politician, first Labour prime minister January–October 1924 and 1929–31, born in Morayshire, Scotland. He left the party to form a coalition government in 1931, which was increasingly dominated by Conservatives, until he was replaced by Stanley Baldwin in 1935.
Macdonald, Flora (1722–1790) Scottish heroine. She rescued Prince Charles Edward Stuart, the Young Pretender, after the Jacobite defeat at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. Disguising him as her maid, she escorted him from her home on South Uist in the Hebrides, to France. She was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London, but released in 1747.
Macdonald, Hector Archibald (1852–1903) British soldier, known as 'Fighting Mac'. At 18 he enlisted in the Gordon Highlanders. He was taken prisoner at Majuba in the first Boer war (1881), but Joubert returned him his sword on account of his bravery. He routed the Mahdi's troops.at the Battle of Omdurman (1898). He was born in Ross‐shire, Scotland. He took part in the Nile expedition (1885) under Sir Evelyn Wood, and distinguished himself in the Dongola expedition (1896). In the Transvaal war of 1899, he commanded the Highland Brigade during the
Page430 Paardeberg, Bloemfontein, and Pretoria campaign under Roberts. He was knighted in 1901.
Macdonald, Malcolm John (1901–1981) British administrator. An MP from 1929–45, he entered Parliament as a Labour member, but sat as National Labour member from 1931–35, and a National Government member from 1936–45. He held a number of junior posts in pre‐war governments, including that of Dominion Secretary (1935–39), but is best known as an administrator. He was the son of James Ramsay Macdonald, and was educated at Bedales School and Queen's College, Oxford. He was minister of health (1940–41), British high commissioner in Canada (1941–46), governor‐general of Malaya, Singapore, and British Borneo (1946–48), and commissioner‐general for the UK in South‐East Asia (1948–55). From 1955–60 Macdonald was British high commissioner in India. In Kenya he was governor‐general in 1963, and subsequently high commissioner. In 1965 he was given a roving commission in East Africa. His publications include Borneo People (1956), Angkor (1958), Birds in the Sun (1962), People and Places (1969), and Titans and Others (1972).
McGill, Donald (1875–1962) (adopted name of Fraser Gould) English comic‐postcard artist. His saucy cartoons, captioned with double meanings, featured outsize women in bathing costumes, paddling alongside weedy henpecked husbands. He drew his first comic card for Asher's Pictorial Postcards in 1905, for whom one popular card sold two million copies, and is estimated to have drawn 500 cards a year for 50 years. McGill was born in Blackheath, West Midlands. He was a junior to a naval architect, then studied cartooning with John Hassall's correspondence course. His work first received critical attention in George Orwell's Horizon article in 1941.
Machine Gun Corps British regiment in World War I, formed in 1915 and disbanded after the war. The unit was a consolidation of infantry machine gun companies into a separate, specialist unit, reflecting the growing importance of the machine gun.
Mackay, Hugh (c. 1640–1692) Scottish general. He fought for Charles II after the Restoration (1660), and then for France against Holland. He later attached himself to William of Orange (1689), accompanying him to England. Sent against Claverhouse, Mackay was defeated at Killiecrankie. He served in Ireland (1691), and was killed at Steinkerk in Flanders.
McKenna, Reginald (1863–1943) English statesman and financier. He was chancellor of the Exchequer 1915–16. Through a series of new loans, import duties, and taxes he managed to meet the rising cost of the war. In 1919 he became chairman of the London City and Midland Bank, retaining the post until his death. He was born in London. He was Liberal MP for North Monmouthshire 1895–1918. After serving as president of the Board of Education 1907– 08, he was First Lord of the Admiralty 1908–11, and at the Home Office, where he attempted to deal with the suffragette problem by the 'Cat and Mouse Act' of 1913. As a member of the Macmillan Committee on Finance and Industry he signed the report which appeared in 1931 just before the abandonment of the gold
Page431 standard.
Macleod, Iain Norman (1913–1970) British Conservative politician. As colonial secretary 1959–61, he forwarded the independence of former British territories in Africa; he died in office as chancellor of the Exchequer. Iain Macleod British Conservative politician 'History is too serious to be left to historians.' [The Observer 16 July 1961]
Macmillan, (Maurice) Harold (1894–1986) (1st Earl of Stockton) British Conservative politician, prime minister 1957–63; foreign secretary 1955 and chancellor of the Exchequer 1955–57. In 1963 he attempted to negotiate British entry into the European Economic Community (EEC), but was blocked by the French president Charles de Gaulle. Much of his career as prime minister was spent defending the UK's retention of a nuclear weapon, and he was responsible for the purchase of US Polaris missiles in 1962. Macmillan was MP for Stockton 1924–29 and 1931–45, and for Bromley 1945–64. As minister of housing 1951–54 he achieved the construction of 300,000 new houses a year. He became prime minister on the resignation of Anthony Eden after the Suez Crisis, and led the Conservative Party to victory in the 1959 elections on the slogan 'You've never had it so good' (the phrase was borrowed from a US election campaign). Internationally, his realization of the 'wind of change' in Africa advanced the independence of former colonies. Macmillan's nickname Supermac was coined by the cartoonist Vicky. Harold Macmillan British Conservative prime minister 'As usual the Liberals offer a mixture of sound and original ideas. Unfortunately none of the sound ideas is original and none of the original ideas is sound.' [Speech to London Conservatives 7 March 1962] Harold Macmillan British Conservative prime minister 'Most of our people have never had it so good.' [Speech in Bedford 20 July 1957]
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Harold Macmillan British Conservative prime minister 'The wind of change is blowing through this continent.' [Speech in Cape Town, 3 February 1960] Harold Macmillan British politician and prime minister 'There is something very 18th century about this young man. He is always on his toes during our discussions. But in the evening there will be music and wine and pretty women.' [On John F Kennedy. Quoted in the New York Journal, 1962] Harold Macmillan British Conservative prime minister 'We have not overthrown the divine right of kings to fall down for the divine right of experts.' [Speech in Strasbourg 16 August 1950]
MacMurrough, Dermot (1110–1171) (also known as Diarmait Mac Murchadha Uí or Dermot Murphy) Irish ruler, king of Leinster 1126–66. He sought the help of the English king Henry II to return to power when he was deposed in a feud in 1166, and was instrumental in organizing the Anglo‐Norman invasion of Ireland in 1170. MacMurrough was ousted by the king of Connaught for eloping with Devorgilla, wife of Tiernan O'Rourke (or O'Ruark), King of Breifne. Living in exile in England, he was permitted by Henry II to recruit among the Normans of Wales, and persuaded their leader, Richard de Clare (2nd Earl of Pembroke, nicknamed 'Strongbow', c.1130–76) to launch an invasion. Strongbow took Waterford, married Dermot's daughter Aoife, and finally captured Dublin. MacMurrough has traditionally been regarded in Ireland as the archetypal traitor who helped instigate English rule, as for example in W B Yeats's play The Dreaming of the Bones 1921.
MacNeill, John (Eoin) (1885–1945) Irish scholar and politician. He was minister of finance in the first Dáil (Irish parliament) in 1919 and minister for industries 1919–21. He supported the Anglo‐Irish Treaty partitioning Ireland, and was minister of education in the first Executive Council of the Irish Free State
Page433 1922–25. He was Free State delegate to the Boundary Commission 1924–25, which shattered nationalist hopes of a revision of the border with Northern Ireland, and MacNeill resigned rather than accept its verdict. In 1913 he inspired and led the Irish Volunteers, but the organization was taken over by John Redmond, who persuaded most of its members to support the Allies in 1914. He was unaware of the existence of the Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB), and IRB manipulation steered the remaining Volunteers towards rebellion in 1916, without MacNeill's knowledge. He reluctantly accepted the insurrection, but countermanded it when it became clear that German aid would fail.
MacNeill, John Gordon Swift (1849–1926) Irish politician. He secured the abolition of flogging in the Royal Navy. He also succeeded in obtaining recognition of the principle that a minister of the Crown must not be a director of a public company. He represented South Donegal in Parliament as a Nationalist 1887–1918. He was born in Dublin, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and Christ Church, Oxford. He was professor of constitutional and criminal law at King's Inn, Dublin 1882–88. He became a KC in 1893.
MacQuaid, John Charles (1895–1973) Irish churchman, Roman Catholic archbishop of Dublin 1940–72. An influential commentator on social and moral questions, he had close links with the Irish prime minister Éamon de Valera. He took a firm stance against mixed religious education, and in 1944 banned Catholics from attending Trinity College, Dublin. Born in Cootehill, County Cavan, MacQuaid was educated there, and in Dublin and Rome. He was ordained priest in the Holy Ghost Fathers in 1924, becoming dean of studies in 1925, and then president at his order's Blackrock College in 1931 (where de Valera's sons were his pupils). He fell out with de Valera when he supported striking schoolteachers in 1947, and thereafter became a vehement opponent of state policy. He played a leading part in the Irish bishops' successful objection to a national health proposal (the 'Mother and Child Scheme') in 1951.
MacSwiney, Mary (1872–1942) Irish republican politician. Born in England, MacSwiney spent most of her life in Ireland. Following the death of her brother, Terence MacSwiney, Mary became a prominent republican leader and was elected to the Dáil (parliament) in 1920 where she opposed the Anglo‐Irish Treaty (1921), which established the Irish Free State within the British Commonwealth. She broke with Éamon de Valera in 1926 when he founded Fianna Fáil. In 1933 she set up Mná na Poblachta (Women of the Republic), a breakaway from Cumann na mBan.
MacSwiney, Terence (1879–1920) Irish writer and revolutionary. In March 1920 he was elected Lord Mayor of Cork, following the murder of his predecessor by police. In August he was arrested for possession of a Royal Irish Constabulary cipher and sentenced to two years' imprisonment. He immediately began a hunger strike, demanding his unconditional release. He died in Brixton Prison after a fast of 74 days, which attracted worldwide attention. He was instrumental in the creation of the Cork Volunteers in 1913, but obeyed John (Eoin) MacNeill's countermand of the order for a rebellion in 1916. He was elected Sinn Fein MP for West Cork in 1918 and helped organize the Dáil's
Page434 arbitration courts, while continuing his efforts as an IRA organizer. His sister was Mary MacSwiney (1872–1942), the republican and social conservative who founded Mná na Poblachta (Women of the Republic) in 1933 as a breakaway from Cumann na mBan.
Madden, Charles Edward (1862–1935) British admiral. He took a prominent part in naval design under Lord Fisher when the Dreadnought was laid down. On the outbreak of World War I, he was appointed chief of staff to Admiral Jellicoe, and was present at the Battle of Jutland. As rear‐admiral 1912–14, he commanded successively the 1st battle squadron, and the 2nd and 3rd cruiser squadrons. He was second‐in‐ command of the Grand Fleet, under Beatty 1916–18. He became commander‐in‐chief of the Atlantic Fleet after the war until 1922. In 1927 he succeeded Admiral Beatty in the post of First Sea Lord, retiring in 1930. He was made KCMG in 1916, baronet in 1919, and received the OM in 1931.
Mafeking, Siege of Boer siege, during the South African War, of the British‐held town (now Mafikeng) from 12 October 1899 to 17 May 1900. The British commander Col Robert Baden‐Powell held the Boers off and kept morale high until a relief column arrived and relieved the town. The raising of the siege was a great boost to morale in Britain.
Magdala, Battle of British victory on 13 April 1868 during the Abyssinian War at Magdala, a fortress on a mountain top (now known as Amba Maryam, Ethiopia) about 190 km/120 mi southeast of Gonder. The Abyssinian Emperor Theodore had imprisoned the British consul and other foreign nationals here in January 1864 and a British expedition succeeded in freeing them in April 1868.
Magersfontein, Battle of during the South African War, Boer victory over the British on 11 December 1899 at a crossing of the Modder River 65 km/40 mi south of Kimberley, South Africa. Together with the British defeats at Colenso and Stormberg, this week was known as 'Black Week'.
Magna Carta ((Latin 'great charter')) in English history, the charter granted by King John (I) Lackland in 1215, traditionally seen as guaranteeing human rights against the excessive use of royal power. As a reply to the king's demands for feudal dues and attacks on the privileges of the medieval church, Archbishop Stephen Langton proposed to the barons the drawing‐up of a binding document in 1213. John was forced to accept this at Runnymede (now in Surrey) on 15 June 1215.
Magrath, Meiler (c. 1523–1622) Irish ecclesiastic, notorious for the flexibility of his attitudes towards the Reformation in Ireland, which his critics claimed were unprincipled. A Franciscan friar, he was appointed papal bishop of Down and Connor in 1565 but, with his acceptance of the royal supremacy in 1570, was made Church of Ireland archbishop of Cashel in 1571, a position he held with an accumulation of lesser sees until his death. Though regarded with suspicion by Protestants and contempt by Catholics, Magrath was, in fact, a shrewd observer of men and affairs. His memoranda on the politics of Ulster and the Munster plantation in the 1580s and 1590s remain invaluable to historians, and deserved to have exerted more influence over English administrators than they did.
Page435 Main Plot conspiracy of 1603 to replace James I on the English throne with Lady Arabella Stuart, the English‐born daughter of the Earl of Lennox. The Spanish were involved, but the plot failed and its leader Henry Brooke (died 1619) was imprisoned, although Arabella remained at liberty until 1610. Sir Walter Raleigh was also implicated but was later reprieved. The plot was investigated at the same time together with a second, but unrelated conspiracy, the so‐called Bye Plot, an attempt to kidnap the king.
mainprise in England, early form of bail, under which a 'mainpernor' would give an undertaking to guarantee a felon's appearance in court.
Maitland, William (1528–1573) Scottish statesman. He was secretary of state to Mary Queen of Scots 1561–66. He probably participated in the murder of Darnley. After Mary's flight to England he became the leader of her cause with a party of her adherents. They held out in Edinburgh castle till 1573, when he surrendered. He was the son of Sir Richard Maitland, Lord Lethington, known as 'Secretary Lethington'. He was educated at St Andrews. He became secretary of state to Mary of Guise, the Queen Regent of Scotland, in 1558, but joined the Lords of Congregation, then in arms against her. In 1560 he was sent on a mission to the English court as the representative of Protestant interests in Scotland. At first he seems to have favoured Bothwell, but on Bothwell's marriage to Mary, he sided with the insurgents against her forces at Langside. He died in prison at Leith.
Major, John (1943–) British Conservative politician, prime minister 1990–97. He was foreign secretary in 1989 and chancellor of the Exchequer 1989–90. His low‐key, consensus style of leadership contrasted sharply with his predecessor Margaret Thatcher. He launched a joint UK–Irish peace initiative on Northern Ireland in 1993, which led to a general ceasefire in 1994. His Back to Basics campaign to restore traditional values was undermined by a series of scandals involving Conservative ministers, and continuing party divisions led to his resigning as party leader in June 1995 to force a leadership vote, which he won narrowly. The Conservatives were heavily defeated in the 1997 general election, after which Major stepped down as party leader. In 2001 he retired from the House of Commons to pursue a career in business. Major's personal popularity and success in the 1991 US‐led war against Iraq helped win the Conservatives another term in 1992. However in his second term Major faced mounting internal divisions within his party, particularly over the issue of closer integration within the European Union, and the UK's forced withdrawal from the Exchange Range Mechanism (ERM) in September 1992 was a major blow.
Page436 Major
(Image © Research Machines plc)
Page437 John Major and his wife, Norma. Born in 1943 in Surrey, England, Major succeeded Margaret Thatcher as Conservative Party leader, and went on to serve two terms as prime minister between 1990 and 1997. During his period in office, he was famed for his love of Surrey County Cricket Club. John Major British Conservative politician and prime minister 'I am my own man.' [On succeeding Margaret Thatcher as prime minister, October 1990] John Major UK Conservative politician, prime minister 1990–97 'I think I'll stay cool, calm and elected.' [Quoted in Time, 20 January 1997, during the run‐up to the general election in May 1997.] John Major British Conservative politician, prime minister 1990–97 'When the curtain falls it is time to get off the stage.' [After losing the general election, 2 May 1997.]
major‐general after the English Civil War, one of the officers appointed by Oliver Cromwell in 1655 to oversee the 12 military districts into which England had been divided. Their powers included organizing the militia, local government, and the collection of some taxes.
Majuba, Battle of in the First South African War, a British defeat by the Boers on 27 February 1881 at Majuba Hill in Natal, about 16 km/10 mi south of Volksrust.
Malachy, St (or St Maol Maedoc) (1094–1148) (born Malachy O'Morgair) Irish archbishop, and principal church reformer in Ireland in the 12th century. Malachy was responsible for introducing the
Page438 Cistercian order into Ireland, in 1142, when he founded the monastery at Mellifont, and was the first Irishmen to be canonized (1190). His reforms included replacing Celtic with Roman liturgy, renewing the use of the sacraments, and establishing a regular hierarchy in the Church in Ireland. His feast day is 3 November. Malachy was born in Armagh. He became abbot of Bangor in 1121, bishop of Connor in 1125, and archbishop of Armagh in 1134. In 1139 he went to Rome, and became acquainted with the influential Cistercian monk St Bernard of Clairvaux. He was to die at Clairvaux in St Bernard's arms during a second visit to Rome in 1148.
Malcolm, John (1769–1833) Scottish administrator and diplomat. He spent most of his career in India and eventually became governor of Bombay (now Mumbai) 1826–30. On his return to England he was MP for Launceston, Cornwall 1831–32. He was born in Burnfoot, Scotland, and joined the East India Company in 1782. In 1798 he was appointed assistant to the resident at Hyderabad by Lord Wellesley. He was envoy to Persia three times (1800, 1807, 1810) and also private secretary to Wellesley 1801–02. He was Wellesley's political agent during the Maratha war 1803–04. He wrote Political History of India (1811), History of Persia (1818), Administration of India (1833), and Life of Clive (1836).
Malcolm four Celtic kings of Scotland:
Malcolm I (943–954) King of Scotland, who succeeded his father Donald II.
Malcolm (II) Mackenneth (c. 954–1034) King of Scotland from 1005. He was the son of Kenneth II, and gained the throne by defeating and killing Kenneth III. In 1016 he won a great victory over Eadulf Cudel at Carham on the Tweed, which resulted in northern Northumbria becoming part of the Scottish kingdom. He was succeeded by his grandson Duncan I.
Malcolm III (c. 1031–1093) (called 'Canmore') King of Scotland from 1058, the son of Duncan I. He fled to England in 1040 when the throne was usurped by Macbeth, but recovered southern Scotland and killed Macbeth in battle in 1057. In 1070 he married Margaret (c. 1045–1093), sister of Edgar Atheling of England; their daughter Matilda (d. 1118) married Henry I of England. Malcolm was killed at Alnwick while invading Northumberland, England.
Malcolm IV the Maiden (c. 1141–1165) King of Scotland from 1153. The son of Henry, Earl of Huntingdon and Northumberland (died 1152), eldest son of David I, he succeeded his grandfather at the age of 11. In 1156 he surrendered Northumberland and Cumberland to Henry II, but had his rights to the earldom of Huntingdon confirmed. He fought with the English in the expedition against Toulouse in 1159, and crushed a number of rebellions in Scotland between 1160 and 1164. Known as 'the Maiden' because of his youth and unmarried status, he was succeeded by his brother William the Lion.
Page439 Malmesbury ancient hill‐top market town in Wiltshire, southwest England, on the River Avon, 30 km/19 mi northwest of Bath; population (1991) 4,700. Tourism is a key source of income; there is also a vacuum‐cleaner factory. The 12th‐century church was built on the site of a Saxon abbey church, founded in the 7th century; it was the burial place of Athelstan, grandson of Alfred the Great and king of the Mercians and West Saxons in the 10th century. The church's elaborate 12th‐century south porch includes some of the finest Romanesque sculpture in Britain, depicting scenes from the Bible. The interior has stained glass by William Morris and Edward Burne‐Jones. The town's market cross dates from around 1490.
Malory, Thomas (c. 1410–1471) English author. He is known for the prose romance Le Morte D'Arthur (c. 1470), printed in 1485, which relates the exploits of King Arthur's knights of the Round Table and the quest for the Holy Grail. He was knight of the shire from 1445. Malory is thought to have been the Warwickshire landowner of that name who was member of Parliament for Warwick in 1445 and was subsequently charged with rape, theft, and attempted murder. If that is so, he must have compiled Le Morte D'Arthur during his 20 years in and out of prison. Based on an unidentified 'French book', with imaginative additions from other sources, it is the fullest version of the legends of King Arthur, and a notable contribution to English prose. Thomas Malory English writer 'The joy of love is too short, and the sorrow thereof, and what cometh thereof, dureth over long.' [Le Morte d'Arthur bk 10, ch. 56]
malt tax in Britain, a tax first imposed in 1697 on the use of malt in brewing. It supplemented the existing beer duty when a hop duty was imposed between 1711 and 1862. The malt tax was abolished in 1880 when replaced by a tax on drinking beer.
Manchester, Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of (1602–1671) English Parliamentarian general and statesman. He was in nominal command at Marston Moor and Newbury (second battle), but was charged with neglect and incompetence by Cromwell (1644) and resigned his commission (1645). He opposed the trial of Charles I and retired from public life. He was created Baron Montagu of Kimbolton (1626), and succeeded to his father's title in 1642. He was accused with the 'Five Members' of high treason in 1642, but exonerated by Parliament. He welcomed the return of Charles II in 1660.
Mandeville, John (died c. 1372) supposed author of a 14th‐century travel manual for
Page440 pilgrims to the Holy Land. Originally written in French, it was probably the work of Jean d'Outremeuse of Liège. As well as references to real marvels, such as the pyramids, there are tales of headless people with eyes in their shoulders and other such fantastic inventions.
Mann, Tom (1856–1941) English labour leader. One of the leaders of a dock strike of 1889, he was president of the International Ship, Dock and River Workers 1892–96, and general secretary of the Amalgamated Engineering Union 1919–21. He was secretary of the Independent Labour Party 1894–96 and a founder member of the British Communist Party in 1920.
Manning, (Elizabeth) Leah (1886–1977) (born Leah Perrett) British Labour politician. She was a member of Parliament in the Labour governments of 1929–31 and 1945–50, and a champion of the Republican cause during the Spanish Civil War (1936–39). Her publications include What I Saw in Spain (1933), in which she strongly advocated a policy of nonintervention, and her autobiography, A Life for Education (1970). She was created DBE in 1966. Manning was born in Rockford, Illinois. She was strongly influenced by the legend of her great‐grandmother (by marriage), the Methodist philanthropist Susan Tappin, who worked among the poor of London's East End. Manning initially trained as a teacher at Homerton College, Cambridge, where she also became involved with the Fabian Society.
Mansfield judgment (or Somersett's Case) legal ruling in 1772 delivered by the Lord Chief Justice, the Earl of Mansfield, which effectively abolished slavery in England and Wales. Mansfield ruled that the runaway slave James Somersett was free, on the grounds that the only type of slavery recognized in English law was serfdom.
Mantes‐la‐Jolie (formerly Mantes‐Gassicourt) French town in the département of Yvelines, on the River Seine; population (1990) 48,000. Paper, musical instruments, and bricks are manufactured here and it is a commuter town for Paris. Mantes was burnt in 1087 by William the Conqueror. Riding through the burning town, William's horse stumbled, throwing him against his saddle and causing internal injures, from which he later died.
manumission in medieval England, the act of freeing a villein or serf from his or her bondage. The process took place in a county court and freedom could either be bought or granted as a reward for services rendered. The term was used in the USA when slaves were freed. In Roman times, slaves could become freedmen or freedwomen by being granted manumission by their owner, who let the slave go (manu misit).
Mappa Mundi 13th‐century symbolic map of the world. It is circular and shows Asia at the top, with Europe and Africa below and Jerusalem at the centre (reflecting Christian religious rather than geographical belief). It was drawn by David de Bello, a canon at Hereford Cathedral, England, who left the map to the cathedral, where it was used as an altarpiece.
Page441 Mar, John Erskine, 11th Earl of (1672–1732) Scottish noble and leader of the Jacobite rising of 1715. He raised an army of episcopalian and Catholic highlanders in support of James Edward Stuart, the Old Pretender, after being dismissed from office by George I. He was forced to retreat after an indecisive battle at Sherriffmuir and went into exile in France. He was known as 'Bobbing John' because of his changes of political allegiance.
Marcher Lords semi‐independent nobles on the Welsh–English border, granted special privileges in return for protecting the border area. In William (I) the Conqueror's reign, strong lords were placed in Chester, Shrewsbury, and Hereford to protect England from Celtic or Saxon incursions. They began to usurp power in their own right, making wars of their own, particularly in the valleys of South Wales, and claiming rights of conquest. After Edward I subjugated Wales, the Marcher Lords no longer played a vital role in the protection of the realm and Edward sought to restrict their independence. They increasingly lost influence during the 12th and 13th centuries but remained important in moments of crisis for the crown, such as the Marshall Rebellion or the Wars of the Roses. By the end of the 15th century most of the lordships had come into the possession of the crown and the last independent lordship, Brecon, was taken by the crown in 1521. They were formally united with England in 1536.
Marconi Scandal scandal in 1912 in which UK chancellor Lloyd George and two other government ministers were found by a French newspaper to have dealt in shares of the US Marconi company shortly before it was announced that the Post Office had accepted the British Marconi company's bid to construct an imperial wireless chain. A parliamentary select committee, biased towards the Liberal government's interests, found that the other four wireless systems were technically inadequate and therefore the decision to adopt Marconi's tender was not the result of ministerial corruption. The scandal did irreparable harm to Lloyd George's reputation.
Margaret (1283–1290) (called 'the Maid of Norway') Queen of Scotland from 1285, the daughter of Eric II, King of Norway, and Princess Margaret of Scotland. When only two years old she became queen of Scotland on the death of her grandfather, Alexander III, but died in the Orkneys on the voyage from Norway to her kingdom. The marriage arranged between her and Edward, son of Edward I of England, would have united the crowns of England and Scotland, but she died on her way from Christiania, now Oslo, to Scotland. She was the daughter of Eric II of Norway and Margaret, Alexander III of Scotland's daughter, and she had been acknowledged as heir to the Scottish throne in 1284.
Margaret of Anjou (1430–1482) Queen of England from 1445, wife of Henry VI of England. After the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses in 1455, she acted as the leader of the Lancastrians, but was defeated and captured at the battle of Tewkesbury in 1471 by Edward IV. Her one object had been to secure the succession of her son, Edward (born 1453), who was killed at Tewkesbury. After five years' imprisonment Margaret was allowed in 1476 to return to her native France, where she died in
Page442 poverty.
Margaret, St (c. 1045–1093) Queen of Scotland, the granddaughter of King Edmund Ironside of England. She went to Scotland after the Norman Conquest, and soon after married Malcolm III. The marriage of her daughter Matilda to Henry I united the Norman and English royal houses.
Markievicz, Constance Georgina, Countess Markievicz (1868–1927) (born Constance Georgina Gore Booth) Irish socialist, revolutionary, and politician. Founder of Na Fianna, the republican youth organization, in 1909, she joined the Irish Citizen Army and took part in the Easter Rising of 1916; her resulting death sentence was commuted. In 1918 she was elected to Westminster as a Sinn Fein candidate (technically the first British woman MP), but did not take her seat, instead serving as minister for labour in the first Dáil Éireann (then the illegal republican parliament) 1919–22. Markievicz was prominent in the Gaelic revival before her involvement in nationalist politics. She joined Sinn Fein in 1908 and, during Dublin's industrial unrest in 1913, worked closely with James Connolly as an officer in his Irish Citizen Army. She was also active in the women's movement Inghinidhe nah Éireann, and became honorary president of the Irish Women Workers' Union. She opposed the Anglo‐ Irish Treaty (1921), which established the Irish Free State within the British Commonwealth, and was elected for Fianna Fáil in 1927 shortly before her death.
Marlborough, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough (1650–1722) English soldier, created a duke in 1702 by Queen Anne. He was granted the Blenheim mansion in Oxfordshire in recognition of his services, which included defeating the French army outside Vienna in the Battle of Blenheim in 1704, during the War of the Spanish Succession. John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough Marlborough English soldier 'I have not time to say more, but beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has a glorious victory.' [Letter to his wife, referring to the Battle of Blenheim 1704] Sarah Marlborough Wife of the first Duke of Marlborough 'The Duke returned from the wars today and did